THE  UNIVERSITY 


OF  ILLINOIS 


LIBRARY 

Q/^ 


The  person  charging  this  material  is  re- 
sponsible for  its  return  on  or  before  the 
Latest  Date  stamped  below. 

Theft,  mutilation,  and  underlining  of  books 
are  reasons  for  disciplinary  action  and  may 
result  in  dismissal  from  the  University. 

University  of  Illinois  Library 


/ 


f* 


FIEST  BOOK 


IN 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


BY 

ACKEKBOS,  A.M., 

IATE  SCHOOL,”  N.  Y.  ; AUTHOR  OF  “ AN  ENGLISH 
CLESSONS  in  composition,”  “advanced  course 

!TION  AND  RHETORIC,”  “A  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY,” 
ILLUSTRATED  SCHOOL  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES,”  “PRIMARY  HISTORY  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES,”  ETC. 


NEW  YORK: 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY, 

443  & 445  BROADWAY.  ' 

1866. 


By  the  same  Authors 

AN  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR:  12mo,  pp.  288. 

FIRST  LESSONS  IN  COMPOSITION  : In  which  the  Principles  of  the  Art  are  developed 
in  connection  with  the  Principles  of  Grammar.  12mo,  pp.  182. 

ADVANCED  COURSE  OF  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC:  A Series  of  Practical 
Lessons  on  the  Origin,  History,  and  Peculiarities  of  the  English  Language,  Punctuation, 
Taste,  the  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination,  Figures,  Style  and  ita  Essential  Properties, 
Criticism  and  the  various  Departments  of  Prose  and  Poetical  Composition : Illustrated 
with  copious  Exercises.  12mo,  pp.  450. 

PRIMARY  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES : Made  easy  and  interesting  for  Begin- 
ners. Child’s  Quarto,  splendidly  illustrated,  pp.  192. 

ILLUSTRATED  SCHOOL  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES:  Embracing  a full 
Account  of  the  Aborigines,  Biographical  Notices  of  Distinguished  Men,  numerous  Maps, 
Plans  of  Battle-fields,  and  Pictorial  Illustrations.  12mo,  pp.  473. 

A NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY  : Embracing  the  most  recent  Discoveries  in  Physics.  A-dapted 
to  use  with  or  without  Apparatus,  and  accompanied  with  Practical  Exercises  and  335 
Illustrations.  12mo,  pp.  450. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1SC4,  by 
G.  P.  QUACKENBOS, 

In  the  Clerh’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  for  the  Southern  District  of 
New  York. 


3. 

tr> 


^26" 


PEEFACE. 


O 


4* 


o 

CT) 

£T 


- 1 


I 


This  m First  Book  in  Grammar  ” has  been  prepared  to  meet 
the  wants  of  young  beginners  in  that  branch,  as  well  as  those  who 
need  a brief  summary  of  the  subject.  To  awaken  their  interest,  to 
teach  them  to  think,  to  enable  them  to  understand  as  they  learn, 
to  lead  them  from  step  to  step  in  the  most  natural  way,  and  to  give 
a direct  practical  application  to  every  abstract  principle,  have  been 
the  leading  objects  of  the  author.  He  has  endeavored  to  condense 
in  a small  space  and  an  attractive  form  all  that  is  of  prime  import- 
ance ; and,  while  it  is  desirable  that  every  pupil  should  follow  this 
course  with  a more  comprehensive  one,  it  is  believed  that  those 
who  master  what  is  here  presented  will  obtain  a very  fair  view  of 
the  language.  The  teacher’s  convenience  has  been  consulted 
throughout.  The  Lessons  are  short  and  easy,  and  illustrated  with 
Exercises  that  will  impress  them  on  thamind. 

The  system  here  embodied  is  the  same  (in  a simplified  form)  as 
that  which  has  been  so  generally  commended  in  the  author’s  larger 
Grammar.  The  Exercises,  however,  whether  in  etymology,  parsing, 
analysis,  or  false  syntax,  are  different ; so  that  those  who  advance 
from  this  to  the  larger  work  will  not  be  obliged  to  go  over  the 
same  field  a second  time,  but  will  find  that  the  two  books  form  a 
consistent  and  well  graded  whole.  It  is  hoped  that  those  who  have 
made  the  author’s  “First  Lessons  in  Composition  ” and  “ Advanced 
Course  of  Composition  and  Rhetoric  ” their  text-books  on  the  syn- 
thesis of  our  language,  may  find  his  Grammars  equally  useful  in 
connection  with  its  analysis. 


Hew  York,  March  19,  1864. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


Sentences,  .... 

. 5 

Words,  Letters,  Spelling,  . 

6 

Vowels  and  Consonants, 

. 7 

Diphthongs,  Triphthongs, 

9 

The  Use  of  Words,  . . 

. 10 

The  Parts  of  Speech,  . . 

11 

The  Noun,  .... 

. 11 

Classes  of  Nouns, 

12 

Person, 

. 13 

Number,  . . 

14 

Formation  of  the  Plural,  . 

. 15 

Irregular  Plural,  . . . 

17 

Plural  of  Foreign  Nouns,  . 

. 18 

Plural  of  Compound  Nouns,  . 

19 

Gender, 

. 20 

Formation  of  Feminines, . 

22 

Subject  and  Object, 

. 24 

Case, 

25 

Declension  of  Nouns,  . 

. 26 

Formation  of  the  Possessive,  v 

27 

The  Pronoun, 

. 27 

Classes  of  Pronouns,  . 

28 

Personal  Pronouns, 

. 28 

Declension  of  the  Personals,  . 

29 

Compound  Personal  Pronouns, 

. 80 

Rules  for  Substantives,  . 

80 

Apposition,  .... 

. 33 

Relative  Pronouns,  . 

35 

Simple  Relatives,  how  applied, 

. 86 

Construction  of  Relatives, 

37 

Compound  Relatives,  . 

. 38 

Interrogative  Pronouns,  . 

40 

Adjective  Pronouns,  . 

. 41 

Declension  of  Adj.  Pronouns,  . 

42 

The  Article,  .... 

. 44 

Adjectives  and  their  Classes,  . 

46 

Degrees  of  Comparison, 

. 48 

Comparison  of  Adjectives, 

49 

Irregular  Comparison,  . 

. 51 

PAGE 

The  Yerb, 52 

Classes  of  Verbs,  ....  53 
Voice.  Mood,  ....  54 

Tenses  of  the  Indicative,  . . 55 

The  Potential  Mood,  . . 56 

The  Subjunctive  Mood,  . . 5T 

Person  and  Number  of  Verbs,  58 
The  Infinitive  Mood,  . . .59 

Participles,  ....  60 

Conjugation  of  the  Verb,  . . 61 

Indicative  Mood  of  be,  . . 61 

Potential  Mood  of  be,  . . .63 

The  Infinitive,  how  used,  . 64 

Subjunctive  Mood,  &c.,  of  be,  . 65 
Construction  of  Participles,  . 6T 

Conjugation  of  the  Active  Voice,  68 
Remarks  on  Active  Voice,  . . 70 

Conjugation  of  the  Passive  Voice,  71 
The  Progressive  Form,  . . 74 

Verbs  distinguished  as  Regular 
and  Irregular,  . . .76 

Table  of  Simple  Irregular  Verbs,  78 
The  Defective  Verbs,  . . 82 

The  Adverb, 84 

Conjunctive  Adverbs,  . . 86 

Comparison  of  Adverbs,  . . 87 

The  Preposition,  ...  89 

The  Conjunction,  . . . .92 

The  Interjection,  ...  94 

The  Rules  of  Syntax,  . . .95 

Ellipsis, 97 

Sentences  Classified,  . . .98 

Subject  and  Predicate,  . . 99 

Principal  Parts  of  Sentences,  . 102 

Clauses, 104 

Forms  of  Analysis,  . . . 105 

Correction  of  False  Syntax,  • 109 

Rules  for  Capitals,  . . . 118 

Punctuation,  ....  119 


FIRST  BOOK  IN  GRAMMAR 


LESSON  I. 

Weeds  grow  rapidly . 

Repeat  the  above  words.  What  do  they  form  ? 

A Sentence. 

Why  do  we  use  this  sentence? 

To  express  a thought. 

Of  what  is  the  sentence  made  up  ? 

Of  three  words,  each  the  sign  of  an  idea. 

What  do  these  words  tell  us  ? 

Weeds  tells  us  what  is  spoken  about. 

Grow  tells  us  what  the  weeds  do. 

Rapidly  tells  us  how  the  weeds  grow. 

What  do  we  use,  then,  to  express  our  thoughts  ? 

Sentences. 

Of  what  are  sentences  made  up  ? 

Of  Words,  which  are  the  signs  of  ideas. 

EXERCISE. 

Complete  these  sentences  by  supplying  words  to  tell  what  is 

spolcen  about : killed  Goliath.  cross  the  ocean. 

fly  swiftly.  will  stain  the  fingers.  smell 

sweet.  build  houses.  keep  us  warm.  bark. 

Complete  these  sentences  by  telling  what  horses  do : Horses 

oats.  Horses carts.  Horses  — — water.  Horses 

grass.  Horses  flies.  Horses  in  the  fields. 

Horses their  masters.  Horses races. 


6 


WORDS,  LETTERS,  SPELLING* 


LESSON  II. 

What  is  a Word  ? 

A Word  is  the  sign  of  an  idea.  The  word  ice  is  a 
sign  that  stands  for  frozen  water . 

Of  what  is  a word,  when  written,  made  up  f 

Of  Letters.  The  word  ice  is  made  np  of  three 
letters. 

What  does  every  letter  stand  for  ? 

A sound  of  the  voice  used  in  speaking. 

How  many  letters  are  there  in  English  ? 

Twenty-six  : a,  b,  c,  d,  e,.f,  g,  A,  i,  j,  A,  l,  tn,  n, 
°>P,  <h  A *»  t,  u,  v,  w,  x,  y,  2. 

What  do  these  letters  form  ? 

The  Alphabet. 

What  is  Spelling  t 

Spelling  is  putting  letters  together  correctly,  to 
form  words. 

EXERCISE. 

Spell  the  following  words : — Business ; separate ; prairie ; 
independence ; believe  ; peaceable  ; sympathize  ; heroes ; 
possessor ; cemetery ; receive  ; outrageous ; monkeys ; ery- 
sipelas ; scimitar ; seminary  ; maintenance  ; Springfield  ; 
Pyrenees  ; Mississippi ; Cincinnati. 


LESSON  III. 

Pronounce  the  word  car.  Pronounce  carpet.  Pronounce  carpet- 
ing. What  difference  may  be  observed  in  pronouncing  these  words  ? 

Car  is  pronounced  with  one  impulse  of  the  voice. 
Car-pet  requires  two  impulses ; car-pet-ing , three. 

What  do  we  call  that  which  is  pronounced  with  one  impulse  of 
the  voice  ? 

A Syllable. 


SYLLABLES. 


7 


How  many  syllables,  then,  in  car  ? In  carpet  ? In  carpeting  ? 

Mention  a word  of  one  syllable ; of  two  syllables ; of  three ; 
of  four. 

What  is  a word  of  one  syllable  called  ? 

A Monosyllable  ; as,  he. 

What  is  a word  of  two  syllables  called  ? 

A Dissyllable ; as,  he-ro. 

What  is  a word  of  three  syllables  called  ? 

A Trisyllable ; as,  hero-ic. 

What  is  a word  of  more  than  three  syllables  called  ? 

A Polysyllable  ; as,  he-ro-i-cal,  he-ro-i-cal-ly. 

Name  the  four  classes,  then',  into  which  words  are  divided,  with 
reference  to  their  number  of  syllables.  How  many  syllables  does 
each  of  these  contain? 

EXERCISE. 

Divide  each  word  into  its  syllables ; tell  whether  it  is  a 
monosyllable , dissyllable,  trisyllable , or  polysyllable: — a; 
an  ; and  ; hand  ; handy ; unhandy  ; handy-work ; repre- 
hensible ; Virginia ; service  ; serviceable  ; ploughs  ; min- 
eralogy ; pretend ; history ; noticed  ; noticing ; talked. 


LESSON  IV. 

How  many  letters  in  the  English  alphabet?  How  are  these 
divided  ? 

Into  two  classes,  Vowels  and  Consonants. 

What  is  a Vowel  ? 

A Vowel, is  a letter  that  can  be  uttered  freely, 
without  interruption  from  the  tongue  or  lips ; as,  a , e. 

What  is  a Consonant  ? 

A Consonant  is  a letter  that  can  not  be  uttered 
freely,  but  is  more  or  less  interrupted  by  the  tongue 
or  lips  ; as,  b,f,  Try  to  sound  these  letters. 


8 


VOWELS,  CONSONANTS. 


How  many  and  which  of  the  letters  are  always  vowels  ? 

Five  ; a,  e,  i,  o , u. 

How  many  and  which  of  the  letters  are  always  consonants  ? 
Nineteen ; b,  c,  d,  /,  g , A?#/,  &,  /,  m,.n,  p , r,  5, 

V,  05,  2. 

Are  w and  y vowels  or  consonants  ? 

W and  y are  consonants  when  they  precede  a vowel 
sounded  in  the  same  syllable ; as  in  wet , swing , re- 
ward , un-yoke.  In  all  other  cases,  they  are  vowels ; 

as  in  ww,  owe,  by,  rye,  newdy. 

EXERCISE. 

Pronounce  each  word;  tell  whether  it  is  a monosyllable, 
dissyllable , trisyllable,  or  polysyllable,  Name  each  letter ; 
tell  whether  it  is  a vowel  or  consonant : — Baby;  why;  awfully; 
mysteriously;  showed;  drying;  joke;  knowingly;  zero; 
viewed;  whortleberry;  gown;  waxen;  unwrap. 


LESSON  V. 

Name  the  vowels. 

A,  e,  i,  o,  v, — and  w and  y,  when  they  do  not  pre- 
cede a vowel  sounded  in  the  same  syllable. 

IIow  many  vowels  are  sometimes  combined  in  one  syllable  ? 

Two,  or  even  three. 

What  is  a Diphthong  ? 

A Diphthong  is  a combination  of  two  vowels  in 
one  syllable  ; as,  ea  in  eat,  oi  in  oil. 

What  is  a Triphthong  ? 

A Triphthong  is  a combination  of  three  vowels  in 
one  syllable  ; as,  eau  in  beau,  owe  in  owed. 

What  is  a Final  Letter  ? 

A Final  Letter  is  one  that  ends  a word ; as,  t in  hat. 


A REVIEW. 


9 


What  is  a Silent  Letter  ? 

A Silent  Letter  is  one  not  sounded.  E is  silent  in 
ice,  g in  gnaw , l in  walk,  w in  wrong . 

EXERCISE. 

Point  out  the  vowels , diphthongs , triphthongs,  final  letters , 
and  silent  letters: — Receive;  chalk;  plough;  wreathe; 
knowledge;  gnat;  eye-brow;  beautiful;  hour;  juice; 
numbness ; castle ; awe-struck ; ewe-lamb ; two-tongued ; 
sweetly;  Europe. 


LESSON  VI. 

A REVIEW. 

How  many  letters  in  the  English  alphabet  ? Are  these  letters 
mostly  vowels  or  consonants  ? What  is  b ? What  is  a ? What 
isw?  What  is  a diphthong?  What  is  a triphthong?  Which 
contains  the  greater  number  of  vowels,  a diphthong  or  a triphthong  ? 
May  w occur  in  a diphthong ? May  y occur  in  a triphthong? 

Which  is  longer,  a monosyllable  or  a polysyllable  ? How  many 
more  syllables  has  a trisyllable  than  a dissyllable  ? What  is  a word 
of  eight  syllables  called,  like  incomprehensibility  ? A word  of  six 
syllables,  like  incomprehensible?  Add  one  more  syllable  to  a 
monosyllable,  and  what  does  it  become  ? 

What  are  the  simplest  elements  of  language  ? 

Letters,  which  stand  for  simple  sounds  of  the 
voice  used  in  speaking. 

In  what  are  letters  combined  ? 

In  syllables,  which  represent  sounds  uttered  by 
one  impulse  of  the  voice. 

In  what  are  syllables  combined  ? 

In  words,  which  are  the  signs  of  ideas. 

In  what  are  words  combined  ? 

In  sentences,  which  express  thoughts. 

1* 


10 


USES  OF  WORDS. 


What  does  Grammar  teach  us  ? 

Grammar  teaches  us  how  to  put  words  together  in 
sentences,  to  express  thoughts  correctly. 

EXERCISE. 

Write  four  trisyllables  ; four  monosyllables  ; four  •poly- 
syllables; four  dissyllables ; four  words  containing  diph- 
thongs ; four  containing  triphthongs ; four  ending  with  silent 
e;  four  words  having  final  y ; four  words  having  a final  con- 
sonant ; four  having  a final  vowel. 


LESSON  VII. 

In  forming  sentences,  what  do  we  have  to  use  ? 

Different  kinds  of  words,  expressing  different  ideas. 

Show  this  in  the  sentence,  But  see  1 he  is  walking  slowly  under 
the  shady  trees. 

We  use  the  word  trees  as  the  name  of  certain 
objects. 

We  use  shady  to  describe  trees , to  tell  what  kind 
of  trees  is  meant. 

We  use  the  to  point  out  some  particular  trees. 

We  use  he  for  the  person’s  name ; in  stead  of 
James  or  John  is  walking,  we  say  he  is  walking. 

We  use  is  walking  to  affirm  an  action,  to  tell  wdiat 
he  is  doing. 

We  use  under  to  show  the  relation  between  is 
walking  and  trees  / not  over  the  trees,  or  from  the 
trees,  but  under  the  trees. 

We  use  slowly  to  tell  how  he  is  walking. 

We  use  see!  to  call  attention. 

We  use  but  to  connect  the  sentence  with  something 
going  before. 


PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 


11 


How  many  different  classes  of  words  have  we  thus  found  ? 

Nine,  each  performing  a different  office. 

What  are  these  nine  classes  of  words  called  ? 

Parts  of  Speech. 

EXERCISE. 

Give  the  names  of  all  the  trees  that  you  can  think  of;  as, 
hemlock,  beech,  pine,  dc. 

Give  all  the  words  you  can  think  of  that  will  describe  the 
trees  ; as , shady  trees , tall  trees , spreading  trees , dc. 

Give  all  the  words  you  can  think  of  that  will  tell  what  he 
is  doing  under  the  shady  trees  ; he  is  walking,  he  is  running, 
he  is  reading,  dc . 

Give  all  the  words  you  can  think  of  that  will  tell  how  he 
is  walking  ; he  is  walking  slowly,  gracefully,  quickly,  do. 


LESSON  VIII. 

How  many  parts  of  speech  are  there  ? 

Nine! 

Nam&fthem. 

Nouns,  Pronouns,  Articles,  Adjectives,  Verbs,  Ad- 
verbs, Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and  Interjections. 

What  is  the  first  part  of  speech  ? 

The  Noun. 

What  is  a Noun  ? 

A Noun  is  a word  used  as  a name. 

Give  examples. 

The  names  of  persons  are  nouns  ; as,  Adam , Vic- 
toria, General  Taylor , Dr.  Benjamin  Franklin . 

The  names  of  countries,  cities,  towns,  rivers,  moun- 
tains, &c.,  are  nouns  ; as,  Scotland , New  York , Mis- 
souri River,  Rocky  Mountains , Atlantic  Ocean . 


12 


THE  NOUN. 


The  names  of  things  that  can  be  seen,  heard,  felt, 
smelled,  and  tasted,  are  nouns ; as,  men , thunder , 
heat , roses , sugar . 

The  names  of  things  that  are  not  seen,  &c.,  but 
simply  thought  of,  are  nouns ; as,  art , happi - 

wess,  patience , genius . 

What  is  your  name?  What  part  of  speech  is  it?  Mention 
four  nouns,  the  names  of  persons ; mention  four,  the  names  of 
countries  ; mention  four,  the  names  of  things  you  can  see  ; mention 
four,  the  names  of  things  you  can  not  see. 

EXERCISE. 

Supply  as  many  appropriate  nouns  as  you  can  think  of, 

in  place  of  each  dash : Farmers  raise . are  sold 

by  dry-goods  merchants.  We  can  buy in  market. 

Hunters  often  shoot . are  made  of  wood.  Every 

one  has  heard  of  such  great  men  as  . The  fisherman 

caught  some . 


LESSON  IX. 

How  many  parts  of  speech  are  there  ? Name  them.  Which 
is  the  first  ? What  is  a noun  ? What  are  all  names  ? 

How  many  kinds  of  nouns  are  there  ? 

Two,  Common  and  Proper. 

What  is  a Common  Noun  ? 

A Common  Noun  is  a name  that  may  be  applied  to 
all  objects  of  the  same  kind ; as,  hoy , country , island , 
dog. 

What  is  a Proper  Noun  ? 

A Proper  Noun  is  the  name  of  an  individual  ob* 
ject,  which  can  not  be  applied  to  all  others  of  the 
same  kind ; as,  Richard , Peru , Ireland , Carlo. 


KINDS  OF  NOUNS. 


13 


What  kind  of  nouns  are  the  names  of  nations  ? 

The  names  of  nations  are  proper  nomis ; as,  the 
Germans . 

How  must  proper  nouns  always  commence  ? 

With  capital  letters.  See  the  above  examples. 

EXERCISE. 

Complete  these  sentences  by  supplying  nouns  of  the  class 
indicated: — The  Amazon  is  the  longest  river  in  ( proper 
noun). — Columbus  found  America  inhabited  by  {proper). — 
Grocers  sell  (six  common  nouns). — Cain  killed  (proper),  his 
(common),  and  was  punished  for  his  (common). — The  garden 
was  bright  with  (six  common  nouns)  and  other  flowers. — In 
the  Bible  we  read  about  (four  proper  nouns)  and  other  good 
(common). — Joseph  had  a (common)  of  many  colors. 


LESSON  X. 


How  many  classes  of  nouns  are  there  ? Name  and  define  them. 

1 \ James , promise  to  go. 

James,  do  you  promise  to  go  ? 

James  promised  to  go. 

How  is  James  represented  in  these  three  sentences  ? 

In  the  first  sentence,  James  is  represented  as  speak- 
ing; in  the  second,  as  spoken  to;  in  the  third,  as 
spoken  of. 

In  parsing,  how  do  we  distinguish  the  noun  James  in  these 
sentences  ? 

In  the  first  sentence,  we  say  that  James  is  in  the 
first  person  ; in  the  second  sentence,  it  is  in  the  second 
person  ; in  the  third  sentence,  in  the  third  person. 


How  many  persons,  then,  are  there  ? 

Three  ; the  First,  the  Second,  and  the  Third. 

2 


14 


PERSON. 


What  do  these  three  persons  denote  ? 

The  First  Person  demotes  that  which  speaks ; the 
Second  Person,  that  which  is  spoken  to ; the  Third 
Person,  that  which  is  spoken  of. 

Does  a noun  show  its  person  by  its  form  ? 

No ; its  form  is  the  same  in  all  three  persons. 

In  what  person  are  most  nouns  that  occur  in  sentences  ? 

In  the  third  person,  because  they  denote  things 
that  are  spoken  of. 

EXERCISE. 

S elect  the  nouns.  Tell  their  class  and  person.  [Thus : — 
Boy  is  a common  noun,  in  the  second  person.  Labor  is  a 
common  noun,  in  the  third  person.]  Toil  on,  brave  boy ; 
for  labor  conquers  all  things. — Alexander  Hamilton  was  shot 
in  a duel  by  Aaron  Burr. — We  moderns  have  many  im- 
provements that  our  forefathers  did  not  possess. — Rejoice, 
0 young  man,  in  thy  youth. — I,  Pharaoh,  dreamed  a dream. 
— Thank  Roger  Bacon,  ye  old  men,  that  ye  can  see,  for  he 
invented  spectacles. 

LESSON  XI. 

What  property  have  we  just  found  that  nouns  possess  ? How 
many  persons  are  there  ? What  do  they  denote  ? 

One  year. 

Two  years ; five  years ; ten  years  ; a thousand  years. 

What  is  to  be  observed  in  these  expressions  ? 

When  one  is  spoken  of,  the  word  year  is  used ; 
when  more  than  one,  the  form  changes  to  years . 

In  parsing,  how  do  we  distinguish  year  and  years  ? 

We  say  that  year  is  in  the  singular  number , and 
years  is  in  the  plural  number . 

How  many  numbers  are  there  ? 

Two,  the  Singular  and  the  Plural. 


NUMBER. 


15 


What  do  they  denote  ? 

The  Singular  denotes  one ; the  Flural,  more  than 
one. 

Does  a noun  show  its  number  by  its  form  ? 

Generally ; most  nouns  change  their  form  in  the 
plural.  Thus : — 

Singular.  Year,  potato,  man,  child, 

Plural . Years;  potatoes;  men;  children. 

EXERCISE 

Select  the  nouns . Tell  their  class , person , and  number . 
[Thus  : — Kings  is  a common  noun,  in  the  third  person,  plural 
number.  Pome  is  a proper  noun,  in  the  third  person,  singu- 
lar  number.]  Seven  kings  ruled  Rome. — A sheep  will  yield 
about  three  pounds  of  wool  every  year. — Homer,  Virgil,  and 
Milton,  are  the  three  great  epic  poets. — Lift  up  your  heads, 
ye  everlasting  gates. — Moses  wrote  the  first  five  books  of 
the  Bible. — Deer  are  still  found  in  the  Adirondack  Moun- 
tains. 


LESSON  XII. 

How  many  properties  have  we  thus  far  found  nouns  to  possess  ? 
How  many  persons  are  there  ? Name  them.  How  many  numbers 
are  there  ? Name  them.  How  many  consonants  are  there  ? Name 
them.  How  many  vowels  are  there  ? Name  them. 

How  do  most  nouns  form  their  plural  ? 

Most  nouns  form  their  plural  by  adding  s to  the 
singular : as,  hat,  hats ; dwarf,  dwarfs ; cuckoo, 
cuckoos  ; Cato,  the  Catos. 

What  nouns  form  their  plural  by  adding  es  ? 

Nouns  ending  as  follows  form  their  plural  by 
adding  es : — 

1.  In  ch  not  sounded  like  7c ; as,  torch,  torches. 


16 


FORMATION  OF 


2.  In  s and  sh  : as,  gas,  gas^s ; gash,  gashes. 

3.  In  x and  z : as,  tax,  taxes ; waltz,  waltzes. 

4.  In  i,  o,  or  w,  preceded  by  a consonant:  as, 
alkali,  alkalies;  cargo,  cargoes;  gnu,  gnues. 

Do  any  nouns  ending  in  o preceded  by  a consonant  take  5 alone, 
to  form  the  plural  ? 

A few : as,  canto,  cantos ; grotto,  grottos ; halo, 
halos ; portico,  porticos ; solo,  solos  ; tyro,  tyros. 

How  do  common  nouns  ending  in  y form  the  plural  ? 

1.  If  final  y is  preceded  by  a vowel,  they  simply 
add  s ; as,  valley,  valleys. 

2.  If  final  y is  preceded  by  a consonant,  they  change 
it  to  ies ; as,  fly,  fh'es. 

Name  fifteen  nouns  ending  in/  and /<?,  that  change  these  letters 
to  ves  in  t‘he  plural. 

Beef,  beeves;  leaf,  lea  ves;  sheaf,  shea  ves;  thief, 
thieves;  loaf,  loaves;  calf,  calves;  half,  halves;  elf, 
elves  ; self,  selves ; shelf,  shelves ; wolf,  wolves ; life, 
lives ; knife,  knives ; wife,  wives ; wharf,  wharves  or 
wharfs. 

EXERCISE. 

Spell  and  define  the  plural.  [Thus : — s-h-o-e-s,  more  than 
one  shoe.]  Shoe ; rat ; wren  ; arch ; monarch ; beech  ; 
kiss;  blush;  box;  topaz;  alkali;  pine;  halo;  crash;  to- 
mato ; bamboo ; trio ; grotto ; echo  ; cry  ; boy ; sty ; 
mercy;  play;  canopy;  eye;  ray;  leaf;  pen-knife  ( like 
’knife);  hoof;  sea-calf  {like  calf);  muff;  life;  knee;  ewe. 


LESSON  XIII. 

How  do  most  nouns  form  their  plural  ? What  nouns  take  es  to 
form  their  plural  ? How  do  nouns  in  y form  their  plural  ? Name 
the  nouns  that  form  their  plural  in  ves. 


TIIE  PLURAL  NUMBER. 


17 


Name  some  nouns  quite  irregular  in  their  plural. 

The  following  nouns  are  quite  irregular : — 


Sing.  Flu. 
Child,  children. 

Foot,  feet. 

Goose,  geese. 


Sing.  Pin. 
Louse,  lice. 
Mouse,  mice. 
Man,  men. 


Sing.  Phi . 
Ox,  oxen. 

Tooth,  teeth. 
Woman,  women. 


What  compounds  of  these  words  form  their  plural  similarly  ? 

Compounds  in  which  these  words  stand  last,  form 
their  plural  similarly : as,  grand  child,  grand  children ; 
fireman,  firemen. 

Give  some  nouns  that  take  both  a regular  and  an  irregular 
plural. 

Some  nouns  have  both  a regular  and  an  irregular 
plural,  with  different  meanings : — 

Singular.  Regular  Plural.  Irregular  Plural. 

Brother,  brothers  (of  a family),  brethren  (of  a society). 

Die,  dies  (stamps  for  coining),  dice  (cubes  for  gaming). 

Genius,  geniuses  (men  of  genius),  genii  (spirits). 

Head,  heads  (parts  of  the  body),  head  (of  cattle). 

Pea,  peas  (distinct  grains),  pease  (taken  in  bulk). 

Penny,  pennies  (distinct  coins),  pence  (a  sum  of  money). 

Sail,  sails  (pieces  of  canvas),  sail  (vessels). 


Give  some  nouns  that  have  the  same  form  in  both  numbers. 

The  following  nouns  are  alike  in  both  numbers : 
alms,  bellows , cannon , deer , means , sheep , swine , and 
the  compounds  of  the  word  fish , as  codfish , &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Spell  and  define  the  plural: — Ox;  ox-fly;  mouse;  dor- 
mouse; man;  waterman;  washerwoman;  Frenchman; 
gooseberry ; tooth-pick  ; eye-tooth  ; cannon  ; fallow-deer  : 
sheep  ; wharf ; sword-fish  ; handful ; step -father. 

Spell  the  singular: — Moneys;  enemies;  keys;  fleas; 
thieves;  heroes;  tyros;  Neros ; alms;  dice;  bellows; 


18 


FORMATION  OF 


Irishwomen  ; sheep  ; black-fish  ; Germans ; waltzes;  leaves; 
pence;  volleys;  genii;  piano-fortes;  brothers-in-law. 


LESSON  XIV. 


How  do  foreign  words  introduced  into  English  without  change 
form  their  plural  ? 

Some  keep  their  foreign  plural;  some  take  the 
regular  English  plural ; some  take  both. 

How  do  foreign  nouns  ending  in  a form  their  foreign  plural  ? 

Foreign  nouns  in  a change  a to  ce\  as,  yertebra, 
vertebra. 


How  do  foreign  nouns  in  us  form  their  foreign  plural  ? 

Foreign  nouns  in  us  change  us  to  i ; as, 


Singular.  Plural . 

Alumnus,  alumni. 

Focus,  foci. 

Magus,  magi. 


Singular.  Plural. 

Nucleus,  nuclei,  R.* 

Radius,  radii,  R. 

Sarcophagus,  sarcophagi,  R. 


How  do  foreign  nouns  in  is  form  their  foreign  plural? 

Foreign  nouns  in  is  change  is  to  es ; as, 


Axis, 

Basis, 

Crisis, 


axes. 

bases. 

crises. 


Hypothesis,  hypotheses. 
Oasis,  oases. 

Parenthesis,  parentheses. 


How  do  foreign  nouns  in  um  and  on  form  their  plural  ? 

Foreign  nouns  in  um  and  on  change  um  and  on  to 


a\  as, 
Animalculum, 
Aquarium, 
Automaton, 
Criterion, 
Datum, 
Encomium, 


animalcula. 
aquaria,  R. 
automata,  R. 
criteria,  R. 
data. 

encomia,  R. 


Erratum, 

Gymnasium, 

Herbarium, 

Medium, 

Memorandum, 

Phenomenon, 


errata. 

gymnasia,  R. 
herbaria,  R. 
media,  R. 
memoranda,  R. 
phenomena. 


* R.  means  that  the  noun  takes  also  the  regular  English  plural ; nucleus^ 
nuclei  or  nucleuses . 


THE  PLURAL  NUMBER. 


19 


Give  the  plural  of  some  more  foreign  nouns. 

Appendix,  appendices,  R. ; beau,  beaux,  R. ; cherub, 
cherubim,  R. ; seraph,  seraphim,  R. 

EXERCISE. 

Supply  the  proper  plural : — Napoleon  made  his  [brothers 
or  brethren  ?]  kings. — The  gambler  must  have  his  [dies  or 
dice?]. — We  need  [geniuses  or  genii ?]  at  the  head  of  affairs. 
— Weak  [heads  or  head?]  often  go  with  strong  bodies. — 
Twenty  [heads  or  head?]  of  cattle  have  just  passed. 

I owe  you  eight  [pennies  or  pence?],  but  have  only  three 
[pennies  or  pence?]  in  my  pocket. — Thirty  [sails  or  sail?] 
swept  up  the  bay,  with  all  their  [sails  or  sail?]  set. — Buy  a 
bushel  of  [peas  or  pease?]. — Two  [peas  or  pease?]  produce 
two  hundred. — Good  [geniuses  or  genii  ?]  guard  thee ! — [Dies 
or  dice  ?]  are  used  in  coining. 


LESSON  XV. 

What  are  the  different  classes  of  words  called  ? How  many 
parts  of  speech  are  there  ? What  is  the  first  part  of  speech  ? 
What  properties  have  we  thus  far  found  nouns  to  possess  ? How 
do  most  nouns  form  their  plural  ? 

How  do  some  compounds  form  their  plural  ? 

The  following  compounds  vary  both  words  that 
compose  them : — 


Man-servant,  men-servants. 
Man-singer,  men-singers. 
Man-child,  men-children. 


Woman-servant,  women-servants. 
Woman-singer,  women-singers. 
Knight-templar,  knights-templars. 


Are  there  any  nouns  not  found  in  both  numbers  ? 

Yes;  some  nouns  have  no  plural,  and  some  no 
singular. 

Mention  some  nouns  that  have  no  plural. 

Many  names  of  virtues,  vices,  arts,  sciences,  dis- 


20 


GENDER. 


eases,  and  articles  sold  by  weight,  have  no  plural ; as, 
patience , idleness , architecture , music , 

Mention  some  nouns  that  have  no  singular. 

Some  nouns  have  no  singular ; as, 


Aborigines 

Annals 

Ashes 

Billiards 


Bitters 

Cattle 

Clothes 

Fireworks 


Goods 

Headquarters 

Riches 

Spectacles 


Suds 

Tidings 

Victuals 

Wages 


EXERCISE. 

Mention  six  foreign  nouns  in  the  singular  number;  six  in 
the  plural. 

Correct  the  errors.  Then  select  the  nouns  ; tell  their  class , 
person , and  number : — Goliath,  the  giant  of  Gath,  was  nearly 
ten  foot  high. — The  phenomenons  of  the  air  are  wonderful. 
— Where  are  the  bellowses  ? — Pharaoh  put  the  man-children 
of  the  Hebrews  to  death. — The  cannons  roared  as  the  sail 
were  unfurled. — Water  is  full  of  animalculums. — Cherubims 
and  seraphims  raise  their  songs. 


LESSON  XVI. 

Lion , Lioness. 

Boy , Girl. 

Man-singer,  Woman-singer. 

Compare  the  words  in  the  first  column  with  those  in  the  second. 
What  is  tq  be  observed  ? 

The  former  denote  males ; the  latter,  females. 

In  parsing,  how  do  we  distinguish  lion  and  lioness  ? 

We  say  that  lion  is  of  the  masculine  gender , and 
lioness  is  of  the  feminine  gender. 

Here,  then,  is  a new  property  that  some  nouns  possess ; what 
is  it  called  ? 

Gender. 


MASCULINE  AND  FEMININE. 


21 


How  many  genders  are  there  ? 

Two,  the  Masculine  and  the  Feminine. 

What  do  they  denote  ? 

The  Masculine  Gender  denotes  males ; the  Feminine, 
females. 

What  is  the  gender  of  a noun  that  denotes  either  male  or 
female, — as  neighbor  ? 

Such  a noun  is  masculine  or  feminine;  we  say 
briefly  that  it  is  of  common  gender 

Do  all  nouns  have  gender  ? 

No.  Things  without  life  are  neither  male  nor 
female.  Hence  their  names  have  no  gender. 

EXERCISE. 

Mention  the  nouns,  their  class,  'person,  number,  and  gender 
when  they  have  it.  [Thus: — Daniel  Webster  is  a proper 
noun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number,  masculine  gen- 
der. Mew  Hampshire  is  a proper  noun,  in  the  third  person, 
singular  number.  Neighbors  is  a common  noun,  in  the  third 
person,  plural  number,  common  gender.] 

Daniel  Webster  was  born  in  New  Hampshire. — Love 
your  neighbors. — The  birds  of  tropical  regions  generally 
have  beautiful  plumage. — Men  of  Switzerland,  remember 
William  Tell. — Sponges  are  obtained  by  divers  in  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea. 


LESSON  . XVII. 

How  many  genders  are  there  ? Name  and  define  them.  What 
nouns  have  gender,  and  what  nouns  have  none  ? What  nouns  are 
said  to  be  of  common  gender  ? 

When  is  a common  noun  said  to  be  personified? 

When  it  is  used  as  the  name  of  a person. 

“ Sorrow  sits  veiling  her  eyes.”  Here  Sorrow  is 


22 


OBJECTS  PEKSONIFIED. 


represented  as  doing  something  that  only  a person 
can  do,  and  it  is  therefore  said  to  be  personified. 

Does  the  name  of  an  object  personified  have  gender  ? 

Yes.  Fierce  and  mighty  objects  (as  War,  Time) 
are  personified  as  males,  and  their  names  become 
masculine.  Gentle  and  beautiful  objects  (as  Hope, 
Evening)  are  personified  as  females,  and  their  names 
become  feminine. 

How  must  the  name  of  an  object  personified  commence? 

With  a capital  letter. 

EXEECISE. 

Parse  the  nouns.  [Thus : — Hope  is  a common  noun  per- 
sonified, in  the  third  person,  singular  number,  feminine 
gender.]  Hope  whispers  her  fair  promises  in  the  ears  of 
youth. — Anger  plunges  the  dagger  in  his  brother’s  heart. — 
Henry  Clay  was  born  in  Virginia. — Peace  and  Plenty  go 
smiling  through  the  land. — With  his  remorseless  scythe, 
Time  mows  down  the  nations. — Justice,  with  bandaged  eyes, 
holds  her  impartial  balance. — Humility  is  the  meek-eyed 
daughter  of  Religion. — Sweet  Charity,  of  thee  I sing. 


LESSON  XVIII. 

Have  all  masculine  nouns  corresponding  feminines  ? 

Not  all,  but  some  have:  as,  lion,  lioness ; boy, 
girl . 

In  how  many  ways  are  feminines  distinguished  from  their  cor- 
responding masculines  ? 

In  three  ways : — 

I.  By  adding  ess , ine , ina , ix , or  a to  the  mascu- 
line, with  or  without  change  ; as, 


GENDER. 


23 


Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Abbot, 

abbess. 

Actor, 

actress. 

Count, 

countess. 

Duke, 

duchess. 

Emperor, 

empress. 

God, 

goddess. 

Marquis, 

marchioness. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Hero, 

heroine. 

Paul, 

Pauline. 

Czar, 

czarina. 

Administrator, 

administratrix. 

Executor, 

executrix. 

Sultan, 

sultana. 

Louis, 

Louisa. 

II.  B y using  an  entirely  different  word ; as, 


Mas. 

Fern. 

Beau, 

belle. 

Boy, 

girl. 

Brother, 

sister. 

Buck, 

doe. 

Bull, 

cow. 

Drake, 

duck. 

Earl, 

countess. 

Mas. 

Fern. 

Father, 

mother 

Gander, 

goose. 

Hart, 

roe. 

Horse, 

mare. 

King, 

queen. 

Lord, 

lady. 

Man, 

woman. 

Mas.  Fern. 
Master,  mistress. 

Nephew,  niece. 

Ram,  ewe. 

Son,  daughter. 

Stag,  hind. 

Steer,  heifer. 

Uncle,  aunt. 


m.  By  prefixing  words  that  denote  the  sex  to 
nouns  of  the  common  gender ; as, 


Man-servant, 

Male-descendant, 


maid-servant, 
j female-de- 
( scendant. 


Cock-sparrow, 

He-goat, 

Buck-rabbit, 


hen-sparrow. 

she-goat. 

doe-rabbit. 


EXERCISE. 

Give  the  feminine: — Lion  ; tailor;  Jew;  shepherd  ; arch- 
duke ; marquis ; Augustus ; Cornelius ; earl ; school-boy ; 
ram  ; step-father ; brother-in-law  ; man-singer ; male-ser- 
vant ; king ; stag ; school-master. 

Give  the  masculine : — Tigress ; poetess ; priestess ; Jo- 
sephine; Henrietta;  Julia;  heifer;  doe;  granddaughter; 
heiress;  gentlewoman;  roe;  landlady;  duck;  godmother; 
baroness;  czarina;  executrix. 

Mention  six  masculine  nouns;  six  feminines ; six  nouns 
of  common  gender  ; six  nouns  that  have  no  gender , 


24 


SUBJECT,  OBJECT. 


LESSON  XIX. 

What  is  a Sentence  ? 

A Sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as 
makes  complete  sense ; as,  “ Bees  make  honey.” 

What  must  every  sentence  contain  ? 

Every  sentence  must  contain  a verb , which  affirms 
some  action  or  state. 

What  is  meant  by  the  Subject  of  a verb  ? 

The  Subject  of  a verb  is  that  of  which  the  action 
or  state  is  affirmed. 

What  is  meant  by  the  Object  of  a verb? 

The  Object  of  a verb  is  that  on  which  the  action 
expressed  by  the  verb  is  exerted. 

Give  examples. 

“ Bees  make  honey.”  Make  affirms  an  action,  and 
is  a verb.  Bees  is  its  subject ; honey  is  its  object. 

How  can  you  find  the  subject  of  a verb  ? 

By  asking  a question  with  who  or  what  before  the 
verb.  The  answer  to  the  question  is  the  subject. 
Thus : — What  make  honey  ? Answer,  bees . Bees  is 
the  subject. 

How  can  you  find  the  object  of  a verb  ? 

By  asking  a question  with  whom  or  what  after  the 
verb.  The  answer  to  the  question  is  the  object. 
Thus : — Bees  make  what  ? Answer,  honey . Money 
is  the  object. 

. Wtfatelse  besides  verbs  have  objects? 

Prepositions,  or  words  that  show  relations ; as,  at, 
about , after,  before , by,  for , from , in,  into , of  over , 
to,  with , without . 


CASE. 


25 


Give  examples. 

At  home  / home  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  at 
For  Jacob's  son  / son  is  the  object  of  the  preposition 
for. 

EXERCISE. 

Select  the  verbs ; tell  the  subject  of  each , and  its  object  if 
it  has  one . Select  the  prepositions  and  their  objects  : — Don 
Quixote  was  written  by  Cervantes  in  prison. — Necessity 
quickens  invention. — Coaches  made  their  way  into  England 
in  the  fifteenth  century. — Without  doubt,  the  ancients  never 
used  forks. — Malice  seldom  wants  a mark. — Quicksilver  is 
another  name  for  mercury.— Indians  traversed  the  whole 
continent,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Mississippi. 


LESSON  XX. 

What  properties  have  we  found  nouns  to  possess  ? What  other 
property  has  the  noun,  to  distinguish  the  relation  of  subject,  ob- 
ject, &c.  ? 

Case. 

How  many  cases  are  there  ? 

Three;  the  Nominative,  the  Possessive,  and  the 
Objective. 

When  is  a noun  in  the  Nominative  Case  ? 

A noun  is  in  the  Nominative  Case, 

I.  When  it  is  the  subject  of  a verb ; as,  “ Bees 
make  honey.” 

II.  When  it  stands  after  a verb,  and  refers  to  the 
same  thing  as  its  subject ; as,  “ Virgil  was  a Roman.” 

III.  When  it  is  used  independently,  in  an  exclama- 

tion, address,  &c. ; as,  “ Heavens ! what  a sight!” 
“ Ye  men  of  Athens ! ” “ The  sun  having  set,  I re- 

turned.” “ Our  father 8)  where  are  they  ? ” 


26 


DECLENSION  OE  NOUNS. 


When  is  a noun  in  the  Possessive  Case  ? 

A noun  is  in  the  Possessive  Case,  when  it  modifies 
some  other  noun,  and  implies  possession,  origin,  or 
fitness ; as,  John's  hat,  goat's  hair,  men's  shoes. 

How  may -the  possessive  case  be  known? 

By  the  apostrophe  [’]. 

When  is  a noun  in  the  Objective  Case  ? 

A noun  is  in  the  Objective  Case,  when  it  is  the 
object  of  a verb  or  preposition;  as,  “Bees  make 
honey''  “ At  home'' 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nouns  in  the  last  Exercise . [Thus  : — Don 
Quixote  is  a proper  noun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber, nominative  case.  Cervantes  is  a proper  noun,  in  the 
third  person,  singular  number,  masculine  gender,  objective 
case.] 


LESSON  XXI. 

Name  the  properties  that  belong  to  nouns.  How  many  persons 
are  there  ? Name  them.  How  many  numbers  ? Name  them. 
How  many  genders?  Name  them.  How  many  cases?  Name 
them.  In  what  case  is  an  object?  In  what  case  is  a subject  ? In 
what  case  is  a noun  that  m<5hifies  another  and  implies  possession  ? 

What  is  meant  by  the  Declension  of  a noun  ? 

The  process  of  carrying  it  through  its  several 


cases. 

Thus 

: — 

Sing. 

Plu. 

Sing. 

Plu. 

Sing. 

Plu. 

Nom. 

Dog, 

dogs, 

Sky, 

skies, 

Hero, 

heroes, 

Poss. 

dog’s, 

dogs’, 

sky’s, 

skies’, 

hero’s, 

heroes’, 

Obj. 

dog; 

dogs. 

sky; 

skies. 

hero ; 

heroes. 

Nom. 

Ox, 

oxen, 

Man, 

men, 

Julius, 



Poss. 

ox’s, 

oxen’s, 

man’s, 

men’s, 

Julius’s, 

— 

Obj. 

ox ; 

oxen. 

man ; 

men. 

#' 

Julius. 

FORMATION  OF  THE  CASES. 


27 


What  do  you  observe  respecting  the  objective  case  of  these 
nouns  ? 

It  is  like  the  nominative. 

How  is  the  possessive  singular  formed  ? 

By  appending  an  apostrophe  and  s [ 7s  ] to  the 
nominative  singular. 

How  is  the  possessive  plural  formed  ? 

By  appending  ’s  to  the  nominative  plural  unless  it 
already  ends  in  in  which  case  the  apostrophe  alone 
is  added. 

EXERCISE. 


Decline  rat ; fly  ; pear ; woman  ; grandchild  ; seraph ; 
mouse ; George  ; Caesar. 

Write  the  objective  plural  of  sheep ; die  (a  stamp) ; foot ; 
deer;  weak-fish;  father-in-law;  school-mistress ; vertebra ; 
man-servant;  gymnasium  ; crisis  ; canto ; sex  ; alkali;  beau ; 
ally;  alley;  journey;  woman- singer. 

Write  the  possessive  singular , and  then  the  possessive 
plural  of  cannon;  German;  boatman;  landlady;  girl; 
turkey ; step-daughter ; cherub ; goose ; fox ; Russian ; day ; 
berry;  ostrich. 


LESSON  XXII. 

Name  the  parts  of  speech  ? Which  of  these  have  we  been  con- 
sidering ? 

What  is  the  second  part  of  speech  ? 

The  Pronoun. 

What  is  a Pronoun  ? 

A Pronoun  is  a word  used  in  stead  of  a noun. 

Give  an  example. 

“ Sarah  asked  William  to  lend  Sarah  William’s 
hook.”  This  is  awkward.  To  avoid  repeating  the 


28 


THE  PRONOUN. 


proper  nouns,  we  substitute  the  pronouns  her  and 
his : — “ Sarah  asked  William  to  lend  her  his  book.” 

How  many  classes  of  pronouns  are  there  ? 

There  are  four  classes  of  pronouns ; Personal, 
Relative,  Interrogative,  and  Adjective. 

What  properties  belong  to  pronouns  ? 

The  same  as  to  nounj, — person,  number,  gender 
if  they  denote  things  with  life,  and  case. 

EXERCISE. 

Supply  nouns  in  the  nominative  ease ; select  the  objects: — 

often  carry  off  chickens.  Large empty  into  the 

sea.  have  to  encounter  many  perils.  are  made 

of  iron.  In  the  ocean  are  many . 

Suppjly  nouns  in  the  objective  case  ; select  the  subjects : — 

Carpenters  make . Traders  bring  from  Africa. 

Earthquakes  destroy  many  . By  reading  , men 

improve  their . The  Laplanders  keep of  reindeer 

about  their . 


LESSON  XXIII. 

What  is  the  second  part  of  speech  ? How  many  classes  of  pro- 
nouns are  there  ? Name  them. 

What  is  a Personal  Pronoun  ? 

A Personal  Pronoun  is  one  that  simply  represents 
a noun  and  determines  its  person,  without  introducing 
any  other  idea  respecting  it. 

Name  the  simple  personal  pronouns. 

The  simple  personal  pronouns  are, 

I,  first  person,  masculine  gender  if  a male  is  denoted, 
feminine  if  a female. 


PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 


29 


Thou,  second  person,  masculine  gender  if-^a  male  is 
denoted,  feminine  if  a female. 

He,  third  person,  masculine  gender. 

She,  third  person,  feminine  gender. 

It,  third  person,  destitute  of  gender. 

Decline  the  simple  personals. 

The  simple  personals  are  thus  declined: — 


First  person.  Second  perso: 


Singular. 

Plural. 

Singular. 

plural. 

Nom . 

I, 

we, 

Thou, 

you,  ye, 

Foss. 

my,  mine,  our, 

ours, 

thy,  thine,  your,  yours, 

Obj. 

me ; 

us. 

thee ; 

you,  ye. 

Third 

PERSON. 

Sing. 

Plu. 

Sing.  Plu. 

Sing.  Plu. 

Horn. 

He, 

they, 

She, 

they, 

It,  they, 

j their, 

j her, 

their, 

( their, 

Foss . 

his, 

( theirs, 

( hers, 

, theirs, 

( theirs, 

Obj. 

him ; 

them. 

her, 

them. 

it ; them. 

EXERCISE. 

State  the  person,  number,  gender  when  it  'is  determined, 
and  ease . [Thus  : — I,  first,  singular,  nominative.  Him , 

third,  singular,  masculine,  objective.]  I;  him;  thine;  me; 
them ; her ; our ; its ; thee  ; their  ; she  ; you ; mine  ; 
yours ; us ; his ; ye ; thy ; it ; we  ; my ; ours ; theirs ; 
thou;  your;  he;  they;  hers. 


LESSON  XXIV. 

Name  the  four  classes  of  pronouns.  What  is  a personal  pro- 
noun ? Decline  the  simple  personals. 

How  are  the  compound  personals  formed  ? 

The  compound  personals  are  formed  of  the  pos- 


30 


THE  COMPOUND  PERSONALS. 


sessive  or  objective  case  of  the  simple  personals  and 
the  word  self. 

Name  the  compound  personals. 

Myself,  plural  ourselves , ourself  1st  person. 

Thyself,  plural  yourselves , yourself  2d  person. 

Himself,  plural  themselves , 3d,  masculine. 

Herself,  plural  themsefaes,  3d,  feminine. 

Itself,  plural  themselves , 3d,  no  gender. 

What  case  do  the  compound  personals  lack  ? 

They  lack  the  possessive  case,  and  have  the  same 
form  in  the  objective  as  in  the  nominative. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct  ours’ ; theirs’ ; it’s  ; your’s ; his’n ; hern ; ourn ; 
yourn;  hisself;  theirselves ; itsself;  theirn. 

Supply  the  proper  pronouns , and  tell  their  person , num- 
ber, gender  when  they  have  it,  and  case : Charles  said  that  he 
had  hurt , but  do  not  think  was  much  in- 
jured. Paul  has  mislaid book ; will  not  try  to 

find  it  for ? George  and  Henry  must  have  lost 

way  in  the  woods ; I can  not  find . This  book  is , 

that  slate  is . 


LESSON  XXV. 

In  parsing  fully,  what  must  be  done  ? 

Rules  must  be  given  for  the  case  of  nouns  and 
pronouns. 

What  general  term  includes  both  nouns  and  pronouns  ? 

Substantives. 

Recite  Rule  I.,  relating  to  the  subject. 

Rule  I. — A substantive  that  is  the  subject  of  a 
verb  is  in  the  nominative  case ; as,  “ Years  come  and 
go.”  “ Lovest  thou  me  ?” 


BULE3  POE  SUBSTANTIVES. 


31 


Recite  Rule  II.,  relating  to  substantives  used  independently. 

Rule  II. — A substantive  used  independently  is  in 
the  nominative  case. 

“ Napoleon  having  charged,  the  battle  was  decided.”  u Robert, 
do  not  go.”  “Ah!  wretched  we  ! ” “The  bride — what  can  I say 
of  her  ? ” Napoleon , Robert,  we,  and  bride,  are  in  the  nominative 
independent. 

Recite  Rule  III.,  for  the  possessive  case. 

Rule  III. — A substantive  that  modifies  a noun 
denoting  a different  person  or  thing,  by  implying 
possession,  origin,  or  fitness,  is  in  the  possessive  case ; 
as,  my  hand ; 3Iorse's  telegraph  ; men's  shoes. 

Recite  Rule  IV.,  relating  to  the  object. 

Rule  IY. — A substantive  that  is  the  object  of  a 
verb  or  preposition  is  in  the  objective  case  ; as,  Pity 
us ; in  Egypt . 

Parsing  forms. — Learn  the  following  forms  for 
parsing  nouns  and  personal  pronouns,  and  applying 
the  above  rules  : — 

I beg  you , my  son , thinh  of  the  consequences . 

I is  a simple  personal  pronoun,  in  the  first  person,  singular  num- 
ber, common  gender,  nominative  case,  the  subject  of  the  verb  beg 
Rule,  A substantive  that  is  the  subject  of  a verb  is  in  the.  nomina- 
tive case. 

You  is  a simple  personal  pronoun,  in  the  second  person,  plural 
number  (used  for  the  singular),  masculine  gender,  objective  caser 
the  object  of  the  verb  beg  : — Rule,  A substantive  that  is  the  object: 
of  a verb  or  preposition  is  in  the  objective  case. 

My  is  a simple  personal  pronoun,  in  the  first  person,  singular 
number,  common  gender,  possessive  case,  and  modifies  the  noun 
son: — Ride,  A substantive  that  modifies  a noun  denoting  a different 
person  or  thing,  by  implying  possession,  origin,  or  fitness,  is  in  ther 
possessive  case. 


32 


RULES  EOR  SUBSTANTIVES. 


Son  is  a common  noun,  in  the  second  person,  singular  number, 
masculine  gender,  nominative  independent : — Rule , A substantive 
used  independently  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

Consequences  is  a common  noun,  in  the  third  person,  plural 
number,  objective  case,  the  object  of  the  preposition  of : — Ruley  A 
substantive  that  is  the  object  of  a verb  or  preposition  is  in  the  ob- 
jective case. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nouns  and  personal  pronouns  according  to  the 
above  models : — Cleopatra  killed  herself  by  the  bite  of  an 
asp. — The  boy — oh!  where  was  he? — We  thought  he  saw 
us. — Beavers  build  their  lodge  by  some  stream. — Day  having 
dawned,  they  were  soon  on  their  journey. — Never  amuse 
yourself  at  the  expense  of  a friend.— I pray  thee,  neighbor, 
let  not  thy  passions  control  thy  reason. 


LESSON  XXVI. 

Repeat  Rule  I.  Rule  II.  Rule  III.  Rule  IV.  In  what  case 
is  a modifying  substantive  that  denotes  possession,  origin,  or  fitness  ? 

What  else  may  a modifying  noun  denote  ? 

Besides  possession,  origin,  and  fitness,  a modifying 
noun  may  denote, 

1.  Time ; as,  “ He  went  last  week.” 

2.  Direction  ; as,  “ He  went  west.” 

3.  Extent ; as,  “ An  inch  wide.” 

4.  Quantity ; as,  “ It  measured  a bushel .” 

5.  Value;  as,  “ It  cost  me  a dollar.” 

In  what  case  are  these  modifying  nouns,  week , west , &c.  ? 

In  the  objective  case. 

Recite  Rule  V.,  relating  to  a modifying  substantive. 

Rule  V. — A modifying  substantive,  denoting 
time,  direction,  extent,  quantity,  or  value,  often  stands 
in  the  objective  case  without  a preposition. 


RULES  FOR  SUBSTANTIVES. 


S3 


Parsing  form. — Caesar  lived  nineteen  centuries 
ago . — Goliath  was  nearly  ten  feet  high . 

Centuries  is  a common  noun,  in  the  third  person,  plural  num- 
ber, objective  case,  denoting  time : — Rule , A modifying  substantive, 
denoting  time,  direction,  extent,  quantity,  or  value,  often  stands  in 
the  objective  case  without  a preposition. 

Feet  is  a common  noun,  in  the  third  person,  plural  number,  ob- 
jective case,  denoting  extent — Ruley  A modifying  substantive,  &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nouns  and  personal  pronouns  according  to  the 
models  given : — The  Pacific  Ocean  is  9000  miles  long. — I ex- 
pect to  go  home  day  after  to-morrow. — Can  you  tell  us,  my 
young  philosopher,  why  the  magnetic  needle  points  north  ? 
— Muslin  a yard  wide  now  costs  forty  cents  a yard. — Good 
wheat  weighs  sixty  pounds  to  the  bushel. 


LESSON  XXVII. 

When  is  one  substantive  said  to  be  in  apposition  with  another  ? 

When  one  substantive  is  joined  to  another  denoting 
the  same  person  or  thing,  to  explain  or  add  to  its 
meaning,  it  is  said  to  be  in  apposition  with  the  latter. 

Give  examples  of  nouns  in  apposition. 

‘‘Fulton,  the  inventor  of  steamboats  inventor  is 
in  apposition  with  Fulton . “ The  prophet  Samuel ; ” 

prophet  is  in  apposition  with  Samuel . 

In  what  case  is  a noun  that  is  in  apposition  ? 

In  the  same  case  as  the  noun  with  which  it  is  in 
apposition.  Inventor  is  in  the  same  case  as  Fulton  ; 
prophet  is  in  the  same  case  as  Samuel. 

Recite  Rule  VI.,  relating  to  substantives  in  apposition. 

Rule  Y I. — One  substantive  joined  to  another  de- 
noting the  same  person  or  thing,  is  in  the  same  case. 

2* 


34 


RULES  FOR  SUBSTANTIVES. 


Recite  Rule  VII.,  relating  to  a verb  that  has  no  object. 

Rule  VII. — A verb  that  has  no  object  takes  the 
same  case  after  as  before  it,  when  both  words  refer 
to  the  same  person  or  thing. 

Give  an  example  of  Rule  VII. 

“ Kosciusko  was  a Pole.”  Pofe,  coming  after  the 
verb  was , is  in  the  same  case  as  Kosciusko , which 
stands  before  it, — that  is,  the  nominative. 

Parsing  forms. — Samuel  the  prophet  was  the  son 
of  Hannah . 

Prophet  is  a common  noun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber, masculine  gender,  nominative  case,  in  apposition  with  Samuel : 
— Rule , One  substantive  joined  to  another  denoting  the  same  per- 
son or  thing,  is  in  the  same  case. 

Son  is  a common  noun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number, 
masculine  gender,  nominative  case  after  the  verb  was : — Rule , A 
verb  that  has  no  object  takes  the  same  case  after  as  before  it,  when 
both  words  refer  to  the  same  person  or  thing. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nouns  and  personal  pronouns : — History  teaches 
us  that  tyrants  are  generally  cowards. — Order  is  Heaven’s 
first  law. — Linnaeus,  the  great  naturalist,  was  a Swede. — 
O Greece,  my  country,  mother  of  heroes,  where  is  thy 
glory  now? — The  sister  of  the  astronomer  Herschel  was 
herself  (in  apposition  with  sister)  a successful  observer  of 
the  heavens. — Some  of  our  modern  orators  think  that  they 
surpass  Demosthenes  himself. — Tasso  was  an  Italian. 


LESSON  XXVIII. 

How  many  parts  of  speech  are  there?  Name  the  second 
What  is  a pronoun?  Name  the  different  classes  of  pronouns. 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 


35 


What  is  a personal  pronoun?  Name  the  simple  personals;  the 
compound  personals. 

What  is  a Relative  Pronoun  ? 

A Relative  Pronoun  is  one  used  to  connect  parts 
of  a sentence,  without  change  of  form  for  the  differ- 
ent persons  and  numbers. 

“ James,  who  was  up  early,  saw  the  sun  rise.’1 
Who  is  a relative ; it  connects  was  up  early  with  the 
rest  of  the  sentence. 

Why  are  the  relatives  so  called  ? 

Because  they  relate  to  some  word  or  words  going 
before,  called  the  Antecedent.  James  is  the  ante- 
cedent  in  the  example  just  given. 

How  ar>  the  relative  pronouns  distinguished? 

As  Simple  and  Compound. 

Name  the  simple  relatives. 

The  simple  relatives  are  who , which , that , as , and 
what . 

Decline  the  simple  relatives. 

The  plural  of  the  simple  relatives  is  like  the  singu- 
lar. They  are  declined  thus: — 


S.  & P. 

S.&  P. 

S.&P. 

S.&P. 

S.&P. 

Nom . 
Poss. 

Who, 

whose, 

Which, 

whose, 

That, 

As, 

What, 

Obj. 

whom. 

which. 

that. 

as. 

what. 

EXERCISE. 

Select  the  relatives , and  the  antecedent  of  each . Parse 
the  nouns  and  the  personal  pronouns: — It  was  Pope  who 
wrote,  “ The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man.” — Such  as 
are  inatten  ive  to  their  business  will  not  prosper. — I who 
speak,  and  you  that  listen,  are  alike  mortal. — The  dispensa- 
tions which  seem  the  hardest  to  bear,  are  often  those  that 


36 


THE  SIMPLE  RELATIVES. 


do  [to]  us  tlie  most  good. — The  second  king  of  the  Plantage- 
net  line  was  Richard  I.,  whose  surname  was  the  Lion- 
hearted,  and  whom  his  exploits  in  Palestine  have  made 
illustrious. 


LESSON  XXIX. 

Decline  the  simple  personal  pronouns.  Decline  the  compound 
personals.  Decline  the  simple  relatives. 

To  what  is  the  relative  who  applied  ? 

Who  is  applied  to  persons,  and  animals  and  things 
.personified : as,  Men  who  dream ; Pleasure,  who 
smiles  but  to  betray. 

To  what  is  the  relative  which  applied  ? 

Which  is  applied  to  animals  and  things  : as,  Dogs 
which  bark ; The  sun,  which  shines  for  all. 

To  what  is  the  relative  that  applied  ? 

That  is  applied  to  persons,  animals,  and  things : 
•as,  Men  that  dream ; Dogs  that  bark ; The  sun  that 
shines  for  all. 

To  what  is  the  relative  as  applied  ? 

As  is  applied  to  persons,  animals,  and  things.  It  is 
used  after  such , same,  as  many , so  many , as  much , so 
much : thus,  Such  men  as  dream ; As  many  as  came. 

To  what  is  the  relative  what  applied  ? 

What  is  applied  to  things,  and  is  equivalent  to 
antecedent  and  relative  ; as,  “ Take  what  \thatwhich\ 
you  wish.” 

Is  that  always  a relative  pronoun  ? 

No,  it  is  sometimes  a conjunction ; as,  “He  said 
that  it  would  rain.” 

When  that  is  a relative,  icho , whom , or  which , 


THE  SIMPLE  RELATIVES. 


37 


used  in  its  place,  will  make  sense  ; “ All  that  [who] 
wear  broadcloth  are  not  gentlemen.” 

In  the  expressions  as  many  as,  as  muck  as , which  as  is  the 
relative  ? 

The  second ; the  first  as  is  an  adverb. 

EXERCISE. 

Mention  the  antecedents , and  correct  the  relatives.  [Thus: 
Woman  is  the  antecedent;  it  denotes  a person,  and  therefore 
the  relative  which , referring  to  it,  should  be  changed  to 
who — The  woman  who  was  at  the  well  was  a Samaritan.] 

The  woman  which  was  at  the  well  was  a Samaritan. — 
There  are  many  books  who  outlive  their  authors. — The  cat, 
who  at  first  seemed  startled,  soon  took  courage. — My  only 
comforter  was  Hope,  which  bade  me  dry  my  tears. — Avoid 
such  boys  who  use  bad  language. — There  are  few  poets  which 
manage  to  make  a living  by  their  poetry. 


LESSON  XXX. 


Does  a relative  show  its  person  and  number  by  its  form  ? 

No ; its  form  does  not  change  when  its  person  and 
number  change. 

How,  then,  can  we  tell  the  person  and  number  of  a relative  ? 
By  looking  at  its  antecedent,  with  which  it  agrees 
in  person  and  number.  Thus : — 


I who  (1st  person,  singular), 
Thou  who  (2d  person,  singular). 
He  who  (3d  person,  singular). 


We  who  (1st  person,  plural). 
You  who  (2d  person,  plural). 
They  who  (3d  person,  plural). 


Recite  Rule  VIII.,  for  the  agreement  of  the  relative. 

Rule  VIII. — A relative  agrees  with  its  antecedent 
in  person  and  number. 

4 


38 


PAESING  OF  SIMPLE  EELATIVES. 


Does  the  relative  agree  with  its  antecedent  in  case  ? 

No  ; in  case  it  is  independent  of  its  antecedent. 

Show  this  by  an  example. 

“ The  temple  was  built  by  Solomon,  who  was  the 
son  of  David,”  The  antecedent  Solomon , being  the 
object  of  the  preposition  is  in  the  objective  case  ; 
but  the  relative  who , being  the  subject  of  the  verb 
was , is  in  the  nominative. 

In  parsing  a relative,  how  many  rules  must  be  given  ? 

Two  : Rule  VIII.,  for  its  agreement,  and  whatever 
other  rule  is  required,  for  its  case. 

What  has  the  force  of  the  compound  relatives,  and 
is  parsed  like  them,  as  shown  in  the  next  lesson. 

EXERCISE, 

Parse  the  relative  'pronouns  in  the  last  two  Exercises . 
[Thus : — It  was  Pope  who  wrote,  “ The  proper  study  of 
mankind  is  man.1’  Who  is  a simple  relative  pronoun,  and 
has  Pope  for  its  antecedent,  with  w hich  it  agrees  in  the 
third  person,  singular  number — Rule , A relative  agrees  with 
its  antecedent  in  person  and  number;  in  the  nominative 
case,  the  subject  of  the  verb  wrote — Rule , A substantive  that 
is  the  subject  of  a verb  is  in  the  nominative  case.] 


LESSON  XXXI. 

How  many  kinds  of  relatives  are  there?  Name  the  simple 
relatives. 

Name  the  compound  relative  pronouns. 

Whoever , whosoever , applied  only  to  persons. 
Whichever , whichsoever , applied  to  persons,  ani- 
mals, and  things. 

Whatever , whatsoever , applied  only  to  things. 


THE  COMPOUND  RELATIVES. 


39 


Decline  the  compound  relatives. 

None  of  the  compound  relatives  change,  except 
whoever  and  whosoever . They  are  alike  in  both  num- 
bers, and  are  declined  thus  : — 


To  what  is  a compound  relative  generally  equivalent  ? 

Like  what , a compound  relative  is  generally  equiva- 
lent to  an  antecedent  and  a simple  relative ; as, 
“ Whoever  [that  is,  any  one  who]  is  low-spirited 
should  learn  to  skate.”  “ Take  whichever  [ either 
that]  you  choose.” 

How  many  cases  do  what  and  the  compound  relatives  represent  ? 

Two  cases  ; one  as  antecedent,  and  the  other  as 
relative.  When  these  cases  are  different,  two  rules 
must  be  given  in  parsing. 

Parsing  forms. — Be  content  with  ichat  you  have . 
— Bring  whoever  is  there . 

What  is  a simple  relative  pronoun,  equivalent  to  antecedent 
and  relative  ; in  the  third  person,  singular  number  ; as  antecedent, 
in  the  objective  case,  the  object  of  the  preposition  with ; as  relative, 
in  the  objective  case,  the  object  of  the  verb  have  : — Rule , A sub- 
' stantive  that  is  the  object  of  a verb  or  preposition  is  in  the  objective 
case. 

Whoever  is  a compound  relative  pronoun,  equivalent  to  ante- 
cedent and  relative,  in  the  third  person,' singular  number ; as  ante- 
cedent, in  the  objective  case,  the  object  of  the  verb  bring — Rule , 
A substantive  that  is  the  object  of  a verb,  &c. ; as  relative,  in  the 
nominative  case,  the  subject  of  the  verb  is — Rule , A substantive 
that  is  the  subject  of  a verb  is  in  the  nominative  case. 


Sing,  and  Plural. 


Sing,  and  Plural. 
Whosoever, 
whosesoever, 
whomsoever. 


Nom.  Whoever, 
Ross,  whosever, 
Obj.  whomever. 


40 


INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS, 


EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nounsand  pronouns:— Accept  with  gratitude 
whatever  ( two  rules)  is  sent  from  Heaven. — Whomsoever 
(one  rule)  we  find  true,  we  trust. — Whoever  {one  rule) 
slanders  my  friend,  slanders  me. — Take  not  what  {two  rules) 
belongs  not  to  you. — Let  her  have  whichever  {two  rules) 
suits  her. — Whoever  {one  rule)  loses,  is  apt  to  complain. 


LESSON  XXXII. 

Name  the  different  classes  of  pronouns.  What  is  a personal 
pronoun  ? What  is  a relative  pronoun  ? 

What  is  an  Interrogative  Pronoun  ? 

An  Interrogative  Pronoun  is  one  used  for  asking 
a question,  in  answering  a question  indefinitely,  and 
in  similar  indefinite  expressions. 

Questions . — Who  did  it  ? Which  was  it  ? What  is  truth  ? 

Indefinite  Answers — I know  not  who  did  it,  what  truth  is. 

Indefinite  Expressions . — Find  out  who  did  it,  which  it  was. 

Name  the  interrogative  pronouns. 

The  interrogatives  are  who , which , and  what . 

How  are  the  interrogatives  declined  ? 

Like  the  corresponding  relatives ; see  page  35. 

When  are  who  and  which  relatives,  and  when  interrogatives  ? 

When  who  and  zohich  relate  to  an  antecedent,  they 
are  relatives  ; when  not,  interrogatives. 

When  is  what  a relative  pronoun,  and  when  an  interrogative  ? 

The  pronoun  what  is  a relative,  when  equivalent  to 
that  xohich  ; when  not,  it  is  an  interrogative. 

When  a question  i3  answered  by  a single  word,  how  can  you 
find  the  case  of  that  word  ? 

By  supplying  the  words  understood.  Thus : — 


INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS. 


41 


“Who  succeeded  Jefferson?  Madison.”  That  is,  Madison  suc- 
ceeded Jefferson ; Madison  is  in  the  nominative  case,  the  subject 
of  succeeded  understood. 

“ Whom  did  Madison  succeed?  Jefferson.”  That  is,  Madison 
succeeded  Jefferson;  Jefferson  is  in  the  objective  case,  the  object 
of  succeeded  understood. 

Parsing  form. — Whom  saw  you  ? — I would  like, 
to  know  whose  books  these  are . 

Whom  is  an  interrogative  pronoun,  in  the  third  person,  singu- 
lar number,  objective  case,  the  object  of  the  verb  saw  : — Rule,  A 
substantive  that  is  the  object  of  a verb  or  preposition  is  in  the  ob- 
jective case. 

Whose  is  an  interrogative  pronoun,  in  the  third  person,  singular 
number,  possessive  case,  and  modifies  the  noun  books : — Rule , A 
substantive  that  modifies  a noun,  &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nouns  and  'pronouns: — What  is  a pronoun? — 
Whose  son  was  David?  Jesse's. — Do  you  know  whom 
Elizabeth  succeeded  ? Yes  ; Queen  Mary. — Which  do  you 
like  best,  arithmetic  (in  apposition  with  which ) or  grammar? 
— Who  invented  the  telescope?  Jansen  or  Galileo,  I do  not 
know  which. 


LESSON  XXXIII. 

What  is  a personal  pronoun?  A relative  pronoun?  An  In- 
terrogative pronoun  ? 

What  are  all  pronouns  not  included  in  the  above  classes  called  ? 

Adjective  Pronouns. 

How  are  Adjective  Pronouns  divided? 

Into  three  classes  : — 

1.  Demonstratives,  which  point  out  with  precision 
the  objects  to  which  they  refer: — This,  that,  former, 
latter , both , same. 


42 


ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 


2.  Distributives,  which  represent  objects  as  taken 
separately : — Each,  every , either , neither. 

3.  Indefinites,  which  refer  to  objects  generally, 
without  specifying  any  in  particular: — One , none , 
other,  another , some,  a//,  any,  swcA. 

Are  these  words  ever  used  with  nouns,  and  not  in  stead  of  them  ? 

Yes;  as,  this  book,  every  person.  In  that  case 
they  are  adjectives. 

How  are  the  adjective  pronouns  declined  ? 

Most  of  the  adjective  pronouns  do  not  change. 
This , that , one , and  other , are  declined  as  follows. 
Another  is  declined  in  the  singular  like  other , but  has 
no  plural. 


s. 

P. 

S. 

P. 

& 

P. 

S.  P. 

jsr. 

This, 

these, 

That, 

those, 

One, 

ones, 

Other,  others, 

p. 

— 

— 



— 

one’s, 

ones’, 

other’s,  others’, 

0. 

this  ; 

these. 

that ; 

those. 

one ; 

ones. 

other ; others. 

Parsing  form. — They  loved  each  other. 

Each  is  an  adjective  pronoun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber, nominative  case,  in  apposition  with  they  : — Rule , One  sub- 
stantive joined  to  another  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing,  is  in 
the  same  case. 

Other  is  an  adjective  pronoun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber, objective  case,  the  object  of  the  verb  loved: — Rule,  The  object 
of  a verb  or  preposition  is  in  the  objective  case. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nouns  and  pronouns : — Teach  me  to  feel  an- 
other’s woe. — Demosthenes  and  Cicero  were  both  great 
orators;  the  former  was  a Greek,  the  latter  a Roman. — 
Some  are  timid,  others  rash;  those  lose  all  by  their  hesita- 
tion, these  by  their  haste. — Let  us  do  good  to  one  (in  appo- 
sition with  us)  another  (object  of  to). — Such  as  are  virtuous, 
are  happy. 


A REVIEW. 


43 


LESSON  XXXIV. 

A REVIEW. 

What  is  a noun  ? What  is  a common  noun  ? What  is  a proper 
noun  ? Name  the  four  properties  of  nouns.  How  many  persons 
are  there?  How  many  numbers?  How  many  genders?  How 
many  cases  ? What  does  the  first  person  denote  ? The  second  ? 
The  third  ? In  what  person  are  most  nouns  ? 

What  does  the  singular  number  denote  ? The  plural  ? How 
do  most  nouns  form  their  plural  ? How  do  nouns  in  s form  their 
plural  ? Nouns  in  y ? Mention  some  nouns  that  have  no  plural. 
Mention  some  that  have  no  singular.  What  does  the  masculine 
gender  denote  ? The  feminine  ? 

What  nouns  have  no  gender  ? In  what  three  ways  are  feminine 
nouns  distinguished  from  their  corresponding  masculines  ? What 
does  the  nominative  case  denote  ? The  possessive  ? The  objective  ? 
Which  two  of  these  cases  have  the  same  form  ? Name  some  of  the 
most  common  prepositions. 

EXERCISE. 

Give  the  pronoun  called  for: — 1.  Simple  personal,  in  the 
first  person,  singular,  objective  (me).  2.  Simple  personal, 

second,  plural,  possessive.  8.  Compound  personal,  third, 
singular,  feminine,  objective.  4.  A simple  relative,  in  the 
objective.  5.  A compound  relative,  in  the  possessive.  6. 
Compound  personal,  first,  plural,  objective.  7.  Simple  per- 
sonal, third,  plural,  masculine,  nominative.  8.  Compound 
personal,  third,  singular,  masculine,  nominative. 


LESSON  XXXV. 

A REVIEW. 

What  is  a pronoun  ? Why  are  pronouns  used  ? What  proper- 
ties do  pronouns  possess  ? Name  the  four  classes  of  pronouns. 
What  is  a personal  pronoun  ? What  is  a relative  pronoun  ? What 


44 


A REVIEW. 


is  an  interrogative  pronoun  ? What  classes  are  included  under  the 
head  of  adjective  pronouns  ? 

How  are  the  compound  personals  formed  ? What  case  is  want- 
ing in  the  compound  personals  ? Which  of  the  simple  relatives  are 
not  found  in  the  possessive  case  ? What  pronouns  have  the  same 
form  as  the  simple  relatives  ? Name  the  compound  relatives. 

Which  of  the  adjective  pronouns  are  declined  ? Name  those 
that  are  not  declined.  When  do  these  words  become  adjectives? 
What  does  the  word  substantive  include  ? Repeat  the  eight  Rules. 
Which  of  these  relates  to  nouns  in  apposition? 

EXERCISE. 

Supply  pronouns  of  the  class  indicated: — (. Interrogative ) 
told  you  that  Mary  had  hurt  ( compound  personal )? — The 
Hottentots  anoint  ( compound  personal)  with  rancid  oil. — 
When  you  have  read  the  book,  put  ( simple  personal)  on  the 
shelf,  or  else  give  it  to  ( simple  personal)  brother. — Some  of 
these  apples  are  larger  than  {adjective  pronoun) ; {adjective 
pronoun)  of  them  are  ripe. — {Interrogative)  of  you  would 
lay  down  ( simple  personal)  life  for  {simple  personal)  neigh- 
bor? 


LESSON  XXXVI. 

Name  the  parts  of  speech.  Which  is  the  first  ? The  second  ? 
The  third  ? 

What  are  the  Articles  ? 

The  Articles  are  the  words  the  and  an  or  a,  used 
before  other  words  to  limit  their  meaning ; as,  the 
rose,  an  English  rose,  a white  rose. 

How  are  the  two  articles  distinguished  ? 

The  is  called  the  Definite  Article.  It  is  used  with 
nouns  in  both  numbers,  and  generally  denotes  a par- 
ticular object  or  objects ; as,  the  rose,  the  roses. 

An,  or  a,  is  called  the  Indefinite  Article.  It  is 


THE  ARTICLE. 


45 


used  with  nouns  in  the  singular  only,  and  denotes  one 
object  but  no  particular  one ; as,  a rose. 

When  must  an  be  used  as  the  indefinite  article  ? 

An  must  be  used  before  words  commencing  with 
a vowel  sound ; as,  an  ant,  an  umbrella,  an  honor. 

When  must  a be  used  as  the  indefinite  article  ? 

A must  be  used  before  words  commencing  with  a 
consonant  sound ; as,  a bird,  a wonder,  a year,  a unit* 
a humor. 

Must  an  or  a be  used  before  words  commencing  with  w and  y ? 

W and  y beginning  words  are  consonants.  A must 
therefore  be  used  before  words  commencing  with 
these  letters  or  their  sounds. 

Why  do  we  say  an  heir,  but  a humor  ? 

H is  silent  in  both  these  words.  Heir , commen- 
cing with  a vowel  sound,  takes  an;  humor , commen- 
cing with  a consonant  sound,  takes  a. 

Recite  Rule  IX.,  relating  to  the  article. 

Rule  IX. — An  Article  relates  to  the  word  whose 
meaning  it  limits. 

Parsing  form.— A friend  of  the  people. 

A is  the  indefinite  article,  and  relates  to  friend: — Rule , An 
article  relates  to  the  word  whose  meaning  it  limits. 

The  is  the  definite  article,  and  relates  to  -people : — Ruley  An 
article,  &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Supply  the  proper  indefinite  article.  Then  parse  the 

nouns , pronouns , and  articles:  aunt  and uncle  are 

not  quite  so  near  as father  and mother.  I saw 

hen, ewe,  and wonderfully  fat  colt,  in 

meadow,  by  the  river.  We  drove  about  for  — — hour  in 
one-horse  wagon,  looking  for  house  with  — — 


46 


THE  ADJECTIVE. 


honeysuckle  by  the  door ; but  not human  habitation 

did  we  find.  Here  is humble  and  at  the  same  time 

honest  man. 


LESSON  XXXVII. 

What  is  the  fourth  part  of  speech  ? 

The  Adjective. 

When  I say  those  Jive  ripe  apples , by  what  is  the  word  apples 
modified  ? 

By  the  words  those,  five,  and  ripe . Those  tells  us 

which  apples  are  meant ; five  tells  how  many  apples  ; 
ripe  tells  what  kind  of  apples.  Words  like  these, 
joined  to  a noun  or  pronoun,  are  called  Adjectives. 

What  is  an  Adjective  ? 

An  Adj  ective  is  a word  used  to  qualify  or  limit  the 
meaning  of  a substantive  ; as,  sweet  roses,  happy  thou. 

Is  the  subject  to  which  an  adjective  relates  ever  understood  ? 

It  is ; as  when  we  speak  of  the  good,  the  living , 
meaning  good  men , living  persons . 

Into  how  many  classes  are  adjectives  divided  ? 

Adjectives  are  divided  into  four  classes ; Proper, 
Numeral,  Pronominal,  and  Common. 

Whnt  is  a Proper  Adjective? 

A Proper  Adjective  is  one  having  the  form  of,  or 
derived  from,  a proper  noun;  as,  Boston  crackers, 
Irish  melodies. 

Proper  adjectives  commence  with  capitals. 

What  is  a Numeral  Adjective? 

A Numeral  Adjective  is  one  that  denotes  a definite 
number ; as,  three  days,  the  third  watch,  a threefold 
gain. 


THE  ADJECTIVE. 


47 


What  are  the  Pronominal  Adjectives  ? 

The  Pronominal  Adjectives  are  words  having  the 
form  of  certain  pronouns,  but  used  with  nouns,  and 
not  in  stead  of  them ; as,  this  man,  all  things,  every 
day,  what  a scene. 

Name  the  pronominal  adjectives. 

The  pronominal  adjectives  are  which , what , which- 
ever, whichsoever,  whatever , whatsoever , this,  that , 
tfAese,  those,  former,  latter,  both,  same,  each,  every , 
either,  neither,  none,  other,  another,  some,  all,  any , 
swcA.  • 

What  is  the  fourth  class  of  adjectives  ? 

Common  Adjectives,  which  embrace  all  not  con- 
tained in  the  above  classes. 

What  may  a common  adjective  express  ? 

A common  adjective  may  express, 

1.  Quality  ; as,  handsome , idle , red-hot , ever-to-be-remembered. 

2.  Quantity ; as,  much  labor,  money  enough,  a whole  month. 

3.  Material ; as,  a gold  crown,  a golden  crown,  wooden  pegs. 

4.  Time  ; as,  daily , weekly , annual , subsequent , everlasting . 

5.  Situation  ; as,  the  above  rule,  the  off  horse,  the  under  side. 

6.  An  indefinite  number ; as,  several , sundry , many. 

EXERCISE. 

Select  the  adjectives ; tell  their  class , they  re- 

late to.  [Thus  : — Wc  is  a common  adjective,  and  relates  to 
Owe  no  man ; French  politeness ; gold  and  silver 
medals ; the  former  country ; five  white  mice ; these  dili- 
gent scholars  ; the  Memphis  boat ; every  thirteenth  soldier ; 
the  Monumental  City;  a nut-brown  maid;  several  large 
Scotch  herrings ; those  never-to-be-forgotten  words  of  the 
Massachusetts  patriot ; a fourfold  increase ; three  hundred 
dollars  (take  three  hundred  together). 


48 


DEGREES  OP  COMPARISON. 


LESSON  XXXVIII. 

What  is  a final  letter  ? Name  the  vowels.  Name  the  consonants. 

“ John  is  tall,  James  is  taller,  but  George  is  the  tallest.”  What 
are  we  told  in  this  sentence  ? 

That  the  quality  of  tallness  belongs  to  John, 
James,  and  George,  in  different  degrees. 

In  what  words  are  these  different  degrees  implied  ? 

In  the  adjectives  tall,  taller , tallest . Hence,  by 
varying  the  form  of  an  adjective,  we  may  make  it 
express  a quality  in  different  degrees. 

What  is  said  of  an  adjective  thus  varied  in  form? 

It  is  said  to  be  compared . 

How  many  degrees  of  comparison  are  there  ? 

Three  ; the  Positive,  Comparative,  and  Superlative. 

What  is  the  Positive  Degree  ? 

The  Positive  is  the  degree  expressed  by  an  adjec- 
tive in  its  simplest  form  ; as,  “ He  is  wise  and  happy” 

What  is  the  Comparative  Degree  ? 

The  Comparative  is  a higher  degree  than  some 
other  or  others  with  which  it  is  compared ; as,  “ He 
is  wiser  and  happier  than  I.” 

What  is  the  Superlative  Degree  ? 

The  Superlative  is  the  highest  degree  of  all  that 
are  compared ; as,  u He  is  the  wisest  and  happiest  of 
us  all.” 

How  are  the  Comparative  and  the  Superlative  Degree  formed  ? 

The  Comparative  Degree  is  formed  by  adding  er, 
and  the  Superlative  by  adding  est,  to  the  Positive ; 
as,  tall,  taller,  tailed ; tender,  tenderer,  tendered. 

What  changes  must  sometimes  be  made  in  the  positive,  before 
adding  er  and  est  ? 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


49 


1.  Final  e must  be  rejected;  as,  rude,  rud-er, 
rud-est. 

2.  Final  y,  preceded  by  a consonant,  must  be 
changed  to  i ; as,  holy,  holder,  holtest. 

3.  A final  consonant,  preceded  by  a single  vowel, 
must  be  doubled ; as,  wet,  wetter,  wettest. 

EXERCISE. 

Write  the  three  degrees  of  warm ; sweet  (no  doubling, 
because  two  vowels  precede  t)  ; merry ; cold ; pale ; short ; 
hot;  pretty;  slow;  fine;  cool;  fit;  plain;  silly;  vile;  flat; 
funny ; great ; handsome ; dirty ; clear  ; noble ; witty ; wide ; 
long ; fat ; quick  ; rare. 


LESSON  XXXIX. 

May  all  adjectives  be  compared  ? 

No.  Many  adjectives  of  one  syllable  are  com- 
pared, and  some  of  two  syllables ; but  none  of  more 
than  two.  W e say  prettier , prettiest ; but  not  peace- 
fuler, gloriousest . 

What  whole  classes  of  adjectives  are  not  compared  ? 

As  a general  rule,  proper,  numeral,  and  pronominal 
adjectives  are  not  compared. 

What  common  adjectives  are  not  compared  ? 

Those  whose  meaning  does  not  admit  of  different 
degrees ; as,  chief  daily , no . 

What  other  way  is  there  of  expressing  different  degrees,  besides 
comparing  the  adjective  ? 

Using  the  adverbs  more , most , less , least , &c. 
Thus,  we  may  say  more  pleasant  in  stead  of  pleasanter, 
most  pleasant  for  pleasantest . 


50 


PARSING  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


When  only  is  an  adjective  said  to  be  compared  ? 

When  it  takes  er  and  est . 

Kecite  Rule  X.,  relating  to  the  adjective. 

Rule  X. — An  adjective  relates  to  the  substantive 
whose  meaning  it  qualifies  or  limits. 

How  may  the  substantive  to  which  an  adjective  relates  be  found  ? 

By  asking  a question  with  who  or  what. 

Thus: — “The  elephant  is  the  largest  of  beasts.”  Question . The 
largest  what  of  beasts  ? Answer.  The  largest  beast  of  beasts. 
Largest  relates  to  beast  understood. 

How  must  we  parse  an  adjective  ? 

To  parse  an  adjective,  state  its  class ; if  it  can  be 
compared,  compare  it  and  mention  its  degree ; tell 
what  it  relates  to,  and  repeat  Rule  X. 

Parsing  form. — June  roses  are  the  sweetest  of 
flowers. 

June  is  a proper  adjective,  and  relates  to  roses: — Rule,  An 
adjective  relates  to  the  substantive  whose  meaning  it  qualifies  or 
limits. 

Sweetest  is  a common  adjective  ; sweet,  sweeter,  sweetest ; in  the 
superlative  degree,  and  relates  to  flowers  understood : — Rule,  An 
adjective  relates,  &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nouns,  'pronouns,  articles,  and  adjectives : — The 
diamond  is  the  brightest  and  most  valuable  of  precious 
stones. — These  smugglers  introduce  great  quantities  of 
Brussels  lace  and  French  brandy. — The  purer  air  is,  the 
healthier. — Few  respect  a tyrant,  and  still  fewer  love  him. 
— Kind  deeds  and  gentle  words  are  finer  ornaments  than 
golden  trinkets  (subject  of  are  understood)  or  jewels  of  great 
price. — Moses  was  the  meekest  of  men. 


IRREGULAR  COMPARISON. 


51 


LESSON  XL. 


What  is  an  adjective?  Name  and  define  the  three  degrees. 
What  is  the  regular  mode  of  forming  the  comparative  degree  ? 
The  superlative  ? 

Compare  the  irregular  adjectives. 

Some  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly  : — 


Pos.  Comp.  Sup. 

Bad,  evil,  ill,  worse,  worst. 

Good,  better,  best. 

Little,  less,  lesser,  least. 


Pos.  Comp. 
Many,  more, 
Much,  more, 
Near,  nearer, 


Sup. 

most. 

most. 

nearest,  next. 


Late  and  old  take  Wo  forms  : — 


j later,  latest.  I j older,  oldest. 

ate>  ( latter,  last.  j ’ ( elder,  eldest. 


Compare  some  adjectives  that  make  a superlative  in  most . 
The  following  make  a superlative  in  most : — 


Pos. 

Far, 

Fore, 

Hind, 

Low, 


Front, 

North, 


Comp . 

Sup. 

farther, 

farthest,  farmost,  farthermost. 

former, 

foremost,  first. 

hinder, 

hindmost,  hindermost. 

lower, 

lowest,  lowermost. 

Inner, 

inmost,  innermost. 

Outer, 

outmost,  outermost. 

Upper, 

upmost,  uppermost. 

— 

frontmost. 

— 

northmost,  &c. 

In  what  degree  are  superior,  inferior , anterior , posterior , prior , 
ulterior , junior,  and  senior  ? 

In  the  comparative  degree.  They  have  neither 
positive  nor  superlative. 


How  are  a few  compound  adjectives  compared  ? 

By  varying  the  first  of  the  simple  words  that  com- 
pose them ; as, 

Good-natured,  better-natured,  best-natured. 

Bright-eyed,  brighter-eyed,  brightest-eyed. 


52 


THE  VERB. 


EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nouns , pronouns,  articles,  and  adjectives.  [Thus : 
— Superior  is  a common  adjective,  in  the  comparative  de- 
gree ; positive  and  superlative  wanting  ; it  belongs  to  view  : 
— Rule,  An  adjective,  &c.]  There  is  a superior  view  from 
the  topmost  point  of  the  cliff, — Let  us  have  less  talk  and 
more  work. — There  are  few  better-tempered  or  warmer- 
hearted  men  than  my  eldest  brother. — In  my  innermost 
heart,  I could  not  help  thinking  my  senior  partner  an  ill- 
natured  man. — The  oldest  friends  are  the  best. 

• 


LESSON  ZLI. 

What  is  the  first  part  of  speech  ? The  second  ? The  third  ? 
The  fourth  ? The  fifth  ? 

How  many  ways  of  affirming  a thing  are  there  ? 

Four.  When  we  affirm,  we  may  assert , exclaim , 
ash,  or  command . Thus  : — 

Assertions.  Carlo  barks.  Carlo  is  cross. 

Exclamations.  How  Carlo  barks  ! How  Carlo  sleeps ! 

Questions.  Can  Carlo  bark  ? Has  Carlo  been  hurt  ? 

Commands.  Carlo,  do  not  bark.  Carlo,  eat  your  meat. 

What  are  word3  that  affirm  called  ? 

Words  that  affirm  are  called  Verbs ; as,  barks , can 
bark,  &c.,  in  the  above  examples. 

What  is  a Verb? 

A Verb  is  a word  or  words  used  to  affirm  an  action 
or  a state. 

Of  how  many  words  may  a verb  consist  ? 

Of  as  many  as  four ; as,  “ He  might  have  been  hurtP 

What  is  the  subject  of  a verb  ? (See  Lesson  XIX.)  How  may 
the  subject  of  a verb  be  found  ? Is  the  subject  ever  understood  ? 


CLASSES  OF  VERBS. 


53 


It  is,  particularly  in  sentences  that  express  a com- 
mand ; as,  “ Carlo,  do  not  [you]  bark.”  You  under- 
stood is  the  subject. 

With  regard  to  their  meaning,  how  are  verbs  distinguished  ? 

As  Transitive  and  Intransitive. 

What  is  a Transitive  Verb? 

A Transitive  Verb  is  one  that  affirms  an  action 
exerted  on  some  person  or  thing ; as,  “ Sarah  broke 
the  bottle.”  “ The  bottle  is  broken .”  Here  the 

breaking  is  exerted  on  the  bottle. 

What  is  an  Intransitive  V erb  ? 

An  Intransitive  Verb  is  one  that  affirms  a state,  or 
an  action  not  exerted  on  any  person  or  thing ; as, 
“ Sarah  is  happy.”  “ Sarah  wept? 

May  the  same  word  be  a transitive  verb  in  one  sentence,  and 
intransitive  in  another  ? 

It  may.  “ He  turned  his  face ; ” turned  is  transi- 
tive, because  it  has  an  object,  face . “ He  turned  / ” 

turned  is  intransitive,  because  it  has  no  object. 

EXERCISE. 

Select  the  verbs  ; state  whether  they  are  transitive  or  in- 
transitive ; mention  the  subject  of  each,  and , when  the  verb  is 
transitive , its  object : — 

The  Saxons  sailed  to  Britain,  effected  a landing,  seized 
on  the  best  parts  of  the  island,  and  drove  the  inhabitants  to 
the  mountain  fastnesses. — Go  [thou]  and  sin  no  more. — 
Sink  or  swim,  survive  or  perish,  I am  for  the  Declaration 
[that  is,  whether  I sink  or  swimJ.^-Whatever  we  see,  hear, 
taste,  touch,  or  smell,  is  called  matter. — Visit  the  sick,  help 
the  poor,  comfort  the  afflicted. — Know  thyself. — Bears  can 
can  be  taught  to  dance. — God  has  promised  to  bless  children 
that  honor  their  parents. 


54 


ACTIVE  AND  PASSIVE  VOICE. 


LESSON  XLII. 

How  may  the  subject  of  a transitive  verb  be  represented  ? 

The  subject  of  a transitive  verb  may  be  represented 
in  two  ways  : — 

1.  As  acting.  “ Bees  make  honey.” 

2.  As  acting  upon.  “ Honey  is  made  by  bees.” 

How  are  these  forms  of  transitive  verbs  distinguished  ? 

When  its  subject  is  represented  as  acting,  the  verb 

is  said  to  be  in  the  Active  Voice. 

When  its  subject  is  represented  as  acted  upon,  the 
verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  Passive  Voice. 

In  what  voice  is  make  in  the  above  example  ? Is  made  ? What 
verbs  have  no  voice? 

Intransitive  verbs,  for  their  subjects  can  never  be 
represented  as  acted  upon.  Their  form  corresponds 
with  that  of  a transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice. 

Besides  voice,  what  properties  have  verbs  ? 

Four ; Mood,  Tense,  Person,  and  Number. 

What  is  Mood  ? 

Mood  is  that  property  of  the  verb  which  distin- 
guishes the  manner  in  which  it  affirms. 

How  many  moods  are  there  ? 

There  are  five  moods ; the  Indicative,  the  Poten- 
tial, the  Subjunctive,  the  Imperative,  and  the  Infinitive. 

EXERCISE. 

In  the  last  Exercise , select  the  verbs  that  have  voice , and 
tell  what  voice  they  are  in . 

Supply  intransitive  verbs ; point  out  the  subject  of  each: 

Pigeons rapidly.  Rain from  the  clouds.  Pekin 

the  capital  of  China.  The  Hottentots in  Africa. 

Bananas in  tropical  regions.  Most  boys to  play. 


TENSES  OF  THE  INDICATIVE. 


55 


Supply  transitive  verbs ; point  out  the  subject  and  the  ob- 
ject of  each:  Fashion  many  followers.  Sheep  

wool.  Dogs their  masters.  Fulton steamboats. 

Travellers some  strange  stories.  the  laws ; 

virtue. 


LESSON  X L III. 

What  is  a verb  ? A transitive  verb  ? An  intransitive  verb  ? 
What  verbs  have  voice  ? What  other  properties  have  verbs  ? 
Name  the  moods. 

What  is  Tense  ? 

Tense  is  that  property  of  the  verb  which  distin- 
guishes the  time  of  what  it  affirms. 

How  many  tenses  has  the  Indicative  Mood  ? 

The  Indicative  Mood  has  six  tenses  ; the  Present, 
the  Imperfect,  the  Perfect,  the  Pluperfect,  the  First 
Future,  and  the  Second  Future. 

Tell  what  each  tense  denotes,  and  give  examples. 

The  Indicative  Present  affirms  that  an  action  is 
taking  place,  or  a state  existing,  at  the  present  time ; 
as,  I depart , I am. 

The  Indicative  Imperfect  affirms  that  an  action 
took  place,  or  a state  existed,  at  some  past  time ; as, 
I departed , I teas. 

The  Indicative  Perfect  affirms  a past  action  or  state 
as  completed  at  the  present  time  ; as,  I have  departed, 
I have  been. 

The  Indicative  Pluperfect  affirms  a past  action  or 
state  as  completed  at  or  before  some  other  past  time ; 
as,  I had  departed , I had  been. 

The  Indicative  First  Future  affirms  that  an  action 


56 


TENSES  OF  THE  INDICATIVE. 


is  about  to  take  place,  or  a state  to  exist ; as,  I shall 
depart , I shall  be. 

The  Indicative  Second  Future  affirms  a future 
action  or  state  as  about  to  be  completed  at  or  before 
some  other  future  time ; as,  I shall  have  departed , I 
shall  have  been . 

Carry  the  verb  love  through  these  tenses  of  the  indicative. 

Pres.  I love.  Pin.  I had  loved. 

Imp.  I loved.  1 Pa.  I shall  love. 

Per/.  I have  loved.  2 Fu.  I shall  have  loved. 

Of  what  tense  is  have  the  sign  ? Had  ? Shall  ? Shall  have  ? 
What  are  these  words  called  ? 

Auxiliaries. 

EXERCISE. 

Carry  the  verb  walk  through  the  tenses  of  the  indicative 
mood ; the  verb  touch. 

Select  the  verbs  ; tell  their  mood  and  tense: — I shall  run. 
I have  slept.  I turned  and  gazed.  I had  answered.  By 
Tuesday  I shall  have  finished  the  book.  Every  night  I 
dream.  You  shall  go,  he  shall  remain.  They  had  started. 


LESSON  XLIV. 

What  is  mood  ? How  many  moods  are  there  ? How  many 
tenses  in  the  indicative  mood  ? Name  them. 

How  many  tenses  in  the  Potential  Mood  ? 

Four ; the  Present,  the  Imperfect,  the  Perfect, 
and  the  Pluperfect. 

What  tenses  are  wanting  in  the  Potential  Mood? 

The  two  futures.  Future  time  is  sometimes  de- 
noted by  the  Present  and  the  Imperfect  Potential; 


THE  POTENTIAL  MOOD. 


57 


as,  u You  may  go  to-morrow.”  “ He  said  he  would 
go  to-morrow.” 

What  do  verbs  in  the  potential  mood  generally  imply  ? 

Permission,  possibility,  ability,  necessity,  deter- 
mination, or  obligation. 

Carry  the  verb  love  through  the  tenses  of  the  potential. 

j Pres.  I may,  can,  must,  or  need  love. 

Imp . I might,  could,  would,  or  should  love. 

JPerf.  I may,  can,  must,  or  need  have  loved. 

Hu.  I might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  loved. 

Name  the  auxiliaries  of  the  potential  present.  Of  the  potential 
perfect.  What  is  the  difference  between  them  ? Mention  the 
auxiliaries  o*f  the  potential  imperfect.  Of  the  potential  pluperfect. 
What  is  the  difference  between  them  ? 

Of  what  tense  is  vnay  the  sign  ? May  have  ? Could  ? Could 
have  ? Must  ? Should  ? Need  ? Might  have  ? Can  have  ? 
Should  have  ? Must  have  ? Must  ? Might  ? 

EXERCISE. 

Carry  the  verb  walk  through  the  tenses  of  the  potential 
mood  ; the  verb  touch. 

Select  the  verbs ; state  whether  they  are  transitive  or  in - 
transitive ; tell  their  mood  and  tense: — You  must  be  silent. 
— They  may  have  returned. — He  need  not  say  a word. — 
Caesar  should  have  paused. — We  can  not  explain  all  things. 
— They  need  not  have  failed. — You  should  remember  that 
the  best  men  may  do  wrong. 


LESSON  XLV. 

What  is  the  Subjunctive  Mood  used  to  express  ? 

1.  A condition ; as,  “ If  thou  wish  it,  I will  remain.” 

2.  A supposition ; as,  “ Though  He  slay  me,  yet 
will  I trust  in  Him.” 

3.  A wish  • as,  “ Oh  that  he  were  there  ! ” 


58 


SUBJUNCTIVE,  IMPERATIVE. 


How  many  tenses  has  the  Subjunctive  Mood  ? 

Two  ; the  Present  and  the  Imperfect. 

Give  the  two  subjunctive  tenses  of  the  verb  love. 

Sub.  Pres.  If  I love.  Sub.  Imp.  If  I loved. 

What  generally  precedes  a verb  in  the  subjunctive  ? 

If,  that , though , lest,  unless,  or  some  other  con- 
junction. But  these  conjunctions  may  be  followed 
by  the  indicative  or  the  potential. 

What  does  the  Imperative  Mood  express  ? 

A command,  an  entreaty,  an  exhortation,  or  per- 
mission ; as,  “ Do  not  talk.”  “ Stay  till  Monday.” 

How  many  tenses  has  the  Imperative  Mood  ? 

But  one,  the  Present;  as,  “ Love  thou.” 

What  is  generally  the  subject  of  a verb  in  the  imperative  ? 

Thou  or  you  understood.  “ Do  not  [thou]  talk.” 
“ Stay  [ you]  till  Monday.” 

EXERCISE. 

Give  the  subjunctive  and  the  imperative  mood  of  the  verb 
walk ; of  the  verb  touch. 

Parse  the  nouns,  pronouns,  and  adjectives.  Select  the 
verbs;  tell  their  mood,  tense,  and  subject: — If  thou  be  guilty, 
I will  disown  thee. — Oh  that  there  were  no  such  thing  as 
war  [w] ! — If  you  loved  me,  I would  not  complain. — Look 
before  you  leap.— Have  a care  lest  thou  fall. — Keep  thy  shop, 
and  thy  shop  will  keep  thee. 


LESSON  XLVI. 

What  properties  have  verbs  besides  mood  and  tense  ? 
Person  and  Number. 

On  what  do  the  person  and  number  of  a verb  depend  ? 
On  the  person  and  number  of  its  subject. 


THE  INFINITIVE  MOOD. 


59 


I pray  pray  is  1st,  sing.,  because  its  subject  I is  1st,  sing. 

Thou  prayest  ;—prayest  is  2d,  sing.,  because  thou  is  2d,  sing. 

He  prays  ; — prays  is  3d,  sing.,  because  he  is  3d,  sing. 

We  pray ; — pray  is  1st,  plural,  because  we  is  1st,  plural. 

You  pray  ; — pray  is  2d,  plural,  because  you  is  2d,  plural. 

They  pray  ; — pray  is  3d,  plural,  because  they  is  3d,  plural. 

What  is  a verb  that  has  person  and  number  called  ? 

A Finite  Verb. 

In  what  mood  is  a verb  that  has  no  person  and  number  ? 

In  the  Infinitive  Mood. 

What  does  the  Infinitive  Mood  express  ? 

An  action  or  state  not  limited  to  a subject. 

How  many  tenses  has  the  Infinitive  Mood  ? 

Two  : the  Present,  which  expresses  an  uncompleted 
action  or  state  ; and  the  Perfect,  which  expresses  one 
that  is  completed. 

Give  these  two  tenses  of  the  verb  love. 

Inf.  Pres.  To  love.  Inf.  Perf.  To  have  loved. 

Observe  that  to  is  the  sign  of  the  infinitive. 

Which  of  the  five  moods  may  be  used  in  asking  questions  ? 

The  indicative  and  potential  only ; as,  “ Shall  false- 
hood triumph  ? Can  truth  perish  ? ” 

EXERCISE. 

Tell  the  person  and  number  of  each  verb  in  the  Iasi 
Exercise. 

Select  the  verbs ; tell  their  mood  and  tense: — The  diligent 
love  to  learn. — Try  to  do  better  than  you  ever  have  done. 
— Senator  Wilkes  was  to  have  addressed  the  meeting. — It 
is  not  right  to  remember  injuries  and  to  forget  favors. — To 
have  succeeded  in  this  would  have  rewarded  me  sufficiently. 
u ’Tis  not  the  whole  of  life  to  live, 

Nor  all  of  death  to  die.” 


60 


PARTICIPLES. 


LESSON  XLVII. 

He  thanked  his  host , and  took  his  leave . 

Thanking  his  host,  he  took  his  leave . 

What  difference  do  you  observe  in  these  sentences  ? 

They  convey  the  same  idea,  but  the  first  affirms 
the  thanking,  while  the  second  assumes  it. 

What  is  the  word  thanking,  which  assumes  the  action,  called  ? 

A Participle.  Participles  belong  to  verbs. 

What  is  a Participle  ? 

A Participle  is  a form  of  the  verb  that  generally 
qualifies  or  limits  the  meaning  of  a substantive,  by 
assuming  some  action  or  state  in  connection  with  it. 

How  many  participles  are  there  ? 

Three, — the  Present,  the  Perfect,  and  the  Com- 
pound Perfect ; as, 

Pres . Loving.  Perf.  Loved. 

Comp . Perf.  Having  loved. 

With  what  must  a participle  not  be  confounded  ? 

With  an  adjective  having  the  same  form.  Both 
modify  substantives ; but  the  participle,  in  addition, 
implies  an  action  or  state,  and  may  govern  an  object 
like  a finite  verb.  Thus  : — 

Adjectives. — A travelling  clerk ; an  amusing  story ; respected 
friend ; withered  flowers. 

Participles. — A clerk  travelling  in  Georgia ; amusing  us  with  a 
story ; respected  by  all ; flowers  withered  by  the  heat. 

Is  a participle  ever  used  without  a substantive  ? 

Yes,  and  it  is  then  said  to  be  used  independently ; 
as,  “ Generally  speaking , murder  will  out.” 

Of  what  is  a participle  used  independently  often  the  object  ? 

Of  a preposition  ; as,  “ the  art  of  reading  well  ”♦ 


CONJUGATION  OF  VERBS. 


61 


EXERCISE 


Give  the  two  infinitive  tenses  and  the  three  participles  of 
the  verb  walk  ; of  the  verb  touch. 

Select  the  verbs  ; tell  what  mood  and  tense  each  is  in,  or 
what  participle  it  is;  mention  the  substantive  that  each  par- 
ticiple relates  to: — By  writing  often,  we  learn  to  write  well. 
— Elizabeth  having  died,  James  I.  succeeded  to  the  throne. 
— Though  surrounded  by  his  guards,  the  tyrant,  tormented  by 
a guilty  conscience,  never  knows  what  it  is  to  be  at  ease. — ■ 
After  learning  much,  we  find  out  how  little  we  know. — The 
necessity  of  practising  self-control  is  obvious. 


What  is  meant  by  conjugating  a verb  ? 

Carrying  it  through  its  moods,  tenses,  persons,  and 
numbers. 

How  do  we  distinguish  the  persons  in  conjugating  ? 

By  prefixing  the  pronouns  I,  thou , he,  in  the  singu- 
lar ; we,  you , they , in  the  plural. 

Do  these  words  form  part  of  the  verb  ? 

No  ; they  must  be  parsed  separately. 

Go  through  the  indicative  mood  of  the  intransitive 
verb  be. 


LESSON  X L V III 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Present  Tense . 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1.  We  are, 

2.  You  are, 

3.  They  are. 


6 


62 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE 


1. 

2. 


3. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

1. 

2. 

3. 


1. 

2. 


3. 


Imperfect  Tense . 


Singular. 

I was, 

Thou  wast  or  wert, 
He  was ; 


Plural. 

1.  We  were, 

2.  You  were, 

3.  They  were. 


Perfect  Tense . 

I have  been,  1. 

Thou  hast  been,  2. 

He  has  been ; 3. 


We  have  been, 
You  have  been, 
They  have  been. 


Pluperfect 

I had  been, 

Thou  hadst  been, 

He  had  been ; 

First  Future 

I shall  or  will  be, 

Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be, 

He  shall  or  will  be ; 


Tense . 

1.  We  had  been, 

2.  You  had  been, 

3.  They  had  been. 

Tense . 

1.  We  shall  or  will  be, 

2.  You  shall  or  will  be, 

3.  They  shall  or  will  be. 


Second  Future  Tense . 

1.  I shall  or  will  have  been,  1.  We  shall  or  will  have  been, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been,  2.  You  shall  or  will  have  been, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have  been  ; 3.  They  shall  or  will  have  been. 

EXERCISE. 

Turn  each  verb  in  italics  into  a participle , and  by  omit- 
ting the  conjunction  or  subject  complete  the  sentence . [Thus : 
— The  enemy  ravaged  the  country  and  departed. — Changed. 
The  enemy,  having  ravaged  the  country,  departed.] 

Cleopatra  lost  her  kingdom  and  her  lover,  and  killed 
herself. — Columbus  knew  how  to  swim,  and  escaped  with 
his  life. — Before  you  proceed  too  far,  be  sure  you  are  right. 
— If  we  try  to  injure  others,  we  injure  ourselves. — When 
the  rain  ceased,  we  departed. — Gen.  Taylor  died , and  Mil- 
lard Fillmore  became  president. 


INTRANSITIVE  VERB  BE. 


63 


LESSON  XLIX. 

Recite  Rule  XI.,  for  the  agreement  of  a finite  verb. 

Rule  XI. — A verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  per- 
son and  number. 

Parsing  form. — Time  changes  all  things , and  we 
too  must  change . 

Changes  is  a transitive  verb,  in  the  active  voice,  indicative 
mood,  present  tense,  third  person,  singular  number,  and  agrees 
with  its  subject  time  : — Rule , A verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  per- 
son and  number. 

Must  change  is  an  intransitive  verb,  in  the  potential  mood, 
present  tense,  first  person,  plural  number,  and  agrees  with  its  sub- 
ject we  : — Rule , A verb  agrees,  &e. 

Give  the  potential  mood  of  the  verb  be. 


POTENTIAL  MOOD. 


Present  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  I may,  can,  must,  or  need 

be, 

2.  Thou  mayst,*  canst,  must,  or 

needst  * be, 

3.  He  may,  can,  must,  or  need 

be; 


Plural. 

1.  We  may,  can,  must,  or  need 

be, 

2.  You  may,  can,  must,  or  need 

be, 

3.  They  may,  can,  must,  or  need 

be. 


Imperfect 

1.  I might,  could,  would,  or 

should  be, 

2.  Thou  mightst,*  couldst,* 

wouldst,*  or  shouldst  * be, 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  be ; 


Tense . 

1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  be, 

2.  You  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  be, 

3.  They  might,  could,  would, 

or  should  be. 


* With  or  without  e • mayst  or  mayest , needst  or  needest , &c. 


64 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  BE. 


Perfect  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  I may,  can,  must,  or  need 

have  been, 

2.  Thou  mayst,  canst,  must,  or 

needst  have  been, 

3.  He  may,  can,  must,  or  need 

have  been ; 

Pluperfect 

1.  I might,  could,  would,  or 

should  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst, 

or  shouldst  have  been, 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  have  been ; 


Plural. 

1.  We  may,  can,  must,  or  need 

have  been, 

2.  You  may,  can,  must,  or  need 

have  been, 

3.  They  may,  can,  must,  or 

need  have  been. 

Tense . 

1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  have  been, 

2.  You  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  have  been, 

3.  They  might,  could,  would, 

or  should  have  been. 


EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nouns , pronouns , articles , adjectives,  and  verbs : 
-All  men  are  mortal. — Hannibal  was  a Carthaginian. — Will 
you  be  there? — He  need  not  be  afraid,  for  he  has  been 
faithful  in  performing  his  duty. — May  you  be  happy ! — 
They  might  have  been  sure  that  she  would  be  there. — I 
must  have  been  asleep. 


LESSON  L. 

Has  a verb  in  the  infinitive  any  subject,  person,  or  number  ? 

How  may  a verb  in  the  infinitive  be  used? 

A verb  in  the  infinitive  may  be  used, 

1.  As  .the  subject  of  a finite  verb  ; as,  “ To  err  is 
human.”  The  infinitive  to  err  is  the  subject  of  the 
finite  verb  is. 

2.  To  limit  the  meaning  of  some  other  word ; as, 
u I wish  to  go,  for  it  is  my  duty  to  do  so.”  To  go 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  TIIE  INFINITIVE. 


65 


limits  the  meaning  of  the  verb  wish  / to  do  limits  the 
meaning  of  the  noun  duty . 

3.  An  infinitive  may  be  used  independently;  as, 
“ To  speak  plainly,  I suspect  you.” 

In  parsing,  what  rule  must  be  given  for  the  infinitive  ? 

Rule  XII. — A verb  in  the  infinitive  is  used  as  a 
subject,  or  limits  the  meaning  of  some  other  word, 
or  stands  independently  in  the  sentence. 

Parsing  form. — To  tell  the  truths  I take  you  to 
he  a rogue . 

To  tell  is  a transitive  verb,  in  the  active  voice,  infinitive  mood, 
present  tense,  used  independently : — Rule , A verb  in  the  infinitive 
is  used  as  a subject,  or  limits  the  meaning  of  some  other  word,  or 
stands  independently  in  the  sentence. 

To  be  is  an  intransitive  verb,  in  the  infinitive  mood,  present 
tense,  and  limits  the  meaning  of  the  verb  take  : — Rule , A verb  in 
the  infinitive  is  used  as  a subject,  &c. 

Give  the  subjunctive  mood,  the  imperative,  infini- 
tive, and  participles,  of  the  verb  be. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 


Present  Tense , 


Singular . 

1.  If  I be, 


Plural. 

1.  If  we  be, 

2.  If  you  be, 

3.  If  they  be. 


2.  If  thou  be, 

3.  If  he  be ; 


Imperfect  Tense . 


1.  If  I were, 

2.  If  thou  were, 

3.  If  he  were  \ 


1.  If  we  were, 

2.  If  you  were, 

3.  If  they  were. 


66 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  BE 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 
Present 


Singular. 

1.  Be  I, 

2.  Be  thou  or  do  thou  be, 

3.  Be  he ; 


Tense . 

Plural. 

1.  Be  we 

2.  Be  you  or  do  you  be, 

3.  Be  they. 


INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense.  To  be.  Perfect  Tense.  To  have  been. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Present.  Being.  Perfect.  Been.  Compound  Perfect.  Having  been. 


EXERCISE. 

Parse  all  the  words : — If  I were  you,  I would  be  a better 
girl. — Try  [agrees  with  its  subject  you  understood]  to  do 
your  duty. — Blessed  be  the  peace-makers, — Love  all  men, 
hate  none. — To  steal  is  base. — To  tell  the  truth,  if  you  were 
to  fail,  I should  be  glad. — Take  care  lest  thou  go  astray. — 
What  care  I whether  thou  stay  or  go  ? 


LESSON  LI. 

When  two  or  more  verbs  in  the  same  mood  and  tense  are  con- 
nected, must  the  auxiliary  be  used  with  each  ? 

No ; the  auxiliary  is  generally  used  with  the  first 
only. 

Give  an  example. 

“ Cities  may  rise,  flourish,  and  decay.”  The  first 
verb  alone  has  the  auxiliary  expressed.  Flourish 
and  decay  have  it  understood,  and  are  in  the  same 
mood  and  tense  as  may  rise , — the  potential  present. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  PARTICIPLES. 


67 


Is  the  auxiliary  ever  expressed  alone,  and  the  principal  verb 
understood  ? 

It  is  ; as,  “ May  I go  ? You  may.”  Parse  may  as 
au  auxiliary  used  for  may  go,  in  the  potential  mood,  &c. 

In  parsing  a participle,  what  rule  must  be  given? 

Rule  XIII. — Participles  are  used  independently, 
or  relate  to  the  substantives  whose  meaning  they 
qualify  or  limit. 

Parsing  form. — Smiling,  she  said,  “ There  is 
always  a satisfaction  in  having  helped  the  poor.” 

Smiling  is  the  present  participle  of  the  intransitive  verb  smile , 
and  relates  to  the  pronoun  she : — Rule , Participles  are  used  inde- 
pendently, or  relate  to  the  substantives  whose  meaning  they  qualify 
or  limit. 

Having  helped  is  the  compound  perfect  participle  active  of  the 
transitive  verb  help , used  independently  as  the  object  of  the  prepo- 
sition in  : — Rule , Participles  are  used  independently,  &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nouns , pronouns , adjectives , and  verbs : — Having 
rapidly  marched  through  his  province  and  reached  the 
Rubicon,  Caesar  paused. — By  doing  good  to  others,  we  do 
good  to  ourselves. — Climbing  to  the  top  of  Mount  Vesuvius 
is  something  of  an  achievement. — Printing,  weaving,  knit- 
ting, grinding,  sawing,  steam  is  our  most  faithful  servant. — 
Can  I help  disobeying  rules  ? Certainly  you  can. 


LESSON  LIX. 

CONJUGATION  OF  THE  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

The  verb  rule,  which  will  serve  as  a model  of  alE 
verbs,  is  conjugated  as  follows  in  the  active  voice: — 


G8 


ACTIVE  VOICE  OF  THE 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense . 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I rule  or  do  rule,  1.  We  rule  or  do  rule, 

2.  Thou  rulest  or  dost  rule,  2.  You  rule  or  do  rule, 

3.  He  rules  or  does  rule  ; 3.  They  rule  or  do  rule. 

Imperfect  Tense . 

1.  I ruled  or  did  rule,  1.  We  ruled  or  did  rule, 

2.  Thou  ruledst  or  didst  rule,  2.  You  ruled  or  did  rule, 

3.  He  ruled  or  did  rule  ; 3.  They  ruled  or  did  rule. 

Perfect  Tense . 

1.  I have  ruled,  1.  We  have  ruled, 

2.  Thou  hast  ruled,  2.  You  have  ruled, 

3.  He  has  ruled;  3.  They  have  ruled. 

Pluperfect  Tense . 

1.  I had  ruled,  1.  We  had  ruled, 

2.  Thou  hadst  ruled,  2.  You  had  ruled, 

3.  He  had  ruled  ; 3.  They  had  ruled. 

First  Future  Tense . 

1.  I shall  or  will  rule,  1.  We  shall  or  will  rule, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  rule,  2.  You  shall  or  will  rule, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  rule  ; 3.  They  shall  or  will  rule. 

Second  Future  Tense . 

1.  I shall  or  will  have  ruled,  1.  We  shall  or  will  have  ruled, 
:2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  ruled,  2.  You  shall  or  will  have  ruled, 
;3.  He  shall  or  will  have  ruled;  3.  They  shall  or  will  have  ruled. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 


Present  Tense . 

1.  I may,  can,  must  or  need  1.  We  may,  can,  must,  or  need 

rule,  rule, 

2.  Thoumayst,  canst,*  &c.,  rule,  2.  You  may,  can,  &c.,  rule, 

3.  He  may,  can,  &c.,  rule;  3.  They  may,  can,  &c.,  rule. 


* In  reciting,  always  give  all  the  auxiliaries — Thou  mayst , canst , must , 
> or  needst  rule. 


TRANSITIVE  VERB  RULE. 


69 


Singular. 

1.  I might,  could,  would,  or 

should  rule, 

2.  Thou  mightst,  &c.,  rule, 

3.  He  might,  &c.,  rule  ; 

1.  I may,  can,  must,  or  need 

have  ruled, 

2.  Thou  mayst,  &c.,  have  ruled, 

3.  He  may,  &c.,  have  ruled  ; 


Plural . 

We  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  rule, 

2.  You  might,  &c.,  rule, 

3.  They  might,  &c.,  rule. 

1.  We  may,  can,  must,  or  need 

have  ruled, 

2.  You  may,  &c.,  have  ruled, 

3.  They  may.  &c.,  have  ruled. 


Imperfect  Tense . 

1. 


Perfect  Tense . 


Pluperfect  Tense . 

1.  I might,  &c.,  have  ruled,  1.  We  might,  &c.,  have  ruled, 

2.  Thou  mightst,  &c.,  have  ruled,  2.  You  might,  &c.,  have  ruled, 

3.  He  might,  &c.,  have  ruled  ; 3.  They  might,  &c.,  have  ruled. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense . 

1.  If  I rule  or  do  rule,  1.  If  we  rule  or  do  rule, 

2.  If  thou  rule  or  do  rule,  2.  If  you  rule  or  do  rule, 

3.  If  he  rule  or  do  rule ; 3.  If  they  rule  or  do  rule. 

Imperfect  Tense . 

1.  If  I ruled  or  did  rule,  1.  If  we  ruled  or  did  rule, 

2.  If  thou  ruled  or  did  rule,  2.  If  you  ruled  or  did  rule, 

3.  If  he  ruled  or  did  rule  ; 3.  If  they  ruled  or  did  rule. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense . 

1.  Rule  I,  1.  Rule  we, 

2.  Rule  thou  or  do  thou  rule,  2.  Rule  you  or  do  you  rule, 

3.  Rule  he  ; 3.  Rule  they. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense.  To  rule.  Perfect  Tense . To  have  ruled. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Present  Ruling.  Perfect.  Ruled.  Comp.  Perfect.  Having  ruled. 


70 


REMARKS  ON  THE  ACTIVE  VOICE. 


EXERCISE. 

Give  the  following  parts  of  the  verb  walk  : — Indie,  perf. 
3d  sing.  Subj.  pres.  2d  sing.  Inf.  perf.  Impera.  2d  sing. 
Pot.  imperf.  3d  pin.  Indie.  2d  fu.  1st  plu.  Subj.  imperf. 
1st  sing.  Pres.  part.  Pot.-  pres.  2d  sing.  Indie,  imperf. 
2d  plu.  Indie.  1st  fu.  1st  plu.  Pot.  pluperf.  3d  plu. 
Comp.  perf.  part. 


LESSON  L III. 

When  do  we  use  the  forms  of  the  present  and  imperfect  in- 
dicative containing  do  and  did  ? 

When  a negation  is  expressed  or  emphasis  is  re- 
quired; as,  “ You  do  not  love  me.  I do  love  you.” 

What  other  form  is  sometimes  used  in  the  third  singular  of  the 
present  indicative  active  ? 

A solemn  form  ending  in  th , — he  ruleth. 

What  person  and  number  of  the  verb  do  we  commonly  use  in 
addressing  a single  person  ? 

The  second  person  plural, — you  rule , not  thou 
rulest.  But  in  prayer  and  poetry  we  say  thou  rulest . 

What  other  form  do  we  sometimes  find  in  the  imperfect  in- 
dicative ? 

In  the  second  singular  of  the  imperfect  indicative, 
st  is  sometimes  omitted;  as,  thou  ruled  for  thou 
ruledst . 

Recite  Rule  XIV.,  relating  to  a substantive  modifying  a par- 
ticiple. 

Rule  XIV. — A substantive  which,  in  stead  of 
being  modified  by  a participle,  is  made  to  modify  the 
latter,  is  put  in  the  possessive  case. 

Give  an  example. 

“ I saw  John  writing.”  Here  the  noun  John  is 


THE  PASSIVE  VOICE. 


71 


modified  by  the  participle  writing , and  is  in  the  ob- 
jective case,  the  object  of  the  verb  saw. 

“I  was  surprised  at  John’s  writing  so  well.” 
Here  John's  is  made  to  modify  the  participle  writing , 
and  is  put  in  the  possessive  case. 

Parse  John's  in  the  last  example  as  follows  : — 

John’s  is  a proper  noun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number, 
masculine  gender,  possessive  case,  and  modifies  the  participle 
writing : — Rule , A substantive  which,  in  stead  of  modifying  a 
participle,  &c. 


Parse  the  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs : — Charles- 
First  would  not  have  lost  his  life,  if  he  had  been  more 
prudent. — God  saveth  whom  He  will. — To  do  good  and  to 
distribute  forget  not. — We  often  shut  our  eyes,  that  we 
may  not  see  our  faults. — Much  depends  on  your  studying 
diligently. — Have  you  read  of  Hannibal’s  crossing  the  Alps? 


LESSON  LIV. 

CONJUGATION  OF  THE  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

How  are  the  tenses  of  the  passive  voice  formed  ? 

By  combining  the  perfect  participle  with  the  cor- 
responding tenses  of  the  auxiliary  be. 

The  transitive  verb  rule  is  conjugated  as  follows 
in  the  passive  voice  : — 


EXERCISE 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Present  Tense . 


Singular. 

1.  I am  ruled, 

2.  Thou  art  ruled, 
8,  He  is  ruled ; 


Plural. 

1.  We  are  ruled, 

2.  You  are  ruled, 

3.  They  are  ruled. 


72 


PASSIVE  VOICE  OF  THE 


Imperfect  Tense . 

Singular . Plural. 


1.  I was  ruled, 

2.  Thou  wast  or  wert  ruled, 

3.  He  was  ruled  ; 


1.  We  were  ruled, 

2.  You  were  ruled, 

3.  They  were  ruled. 


Perfect 

1.  I have  been  ruled, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  ruled, 

3.  He  has  been  ruled ; 


Tense . 

1.  We  have  been  ruled, 

2.  You  have  been  ruled, 

3.  They  have  been  ruled. 


Pluperfect  Tense. 

1.  I had  been  ruled,  1.  We  had  been  ruled, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  ruled,  2.  You  had  been  ruled, 

3.  He  had  been  ruled  ; 3.  They  had  been  ruled. 

First  Future  Tense. 


1.  I shall  or  will  be  ruled, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be  ruled, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be  ruled ; 


1.  I shall  or  will  have  been 

ruled, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been 

ruled, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have  been 

ruled ; 


1.  We  shall  or  will  be  ruled, 

2.  You  shall  or  will  be  ruled, 

3.  They  shall  or  will  be  ruled. 

have  been 
have  been 
have  been 


Second  Future  Tense. 

1.  We  shall  or  will 
ruled, 

2.  You  shall  or  will 
ruled, 

3.  They  shall  or  will 
ruled. 


POTENTIAL  MOOD. 


Present  Tense. 


1.  I may,  can,  must,  or  need  be 

ruled, 

2.  Thou  mayst,  &c.,  be  ruled, 

3.  He  may,  &c.,  be  ruled  ; 


1.  We  may,  can,  must,  or  need 

be  ruled, 

2.  You  may,  &c.,  be  ruled, 

3.  They  may,  &c.,  be  ruled. 


TRANSITIVE  VERB  RULE . 


73 


Imperfect  Tense . 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I might,  could,  would,  or  1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  be  ruled,  should  be  ruled, 

2.  Thou  mightst,  &c.,  be  ruled,  2.  You  might,  &c.,  be  ruled, 

3.  He  might,  &c.,  be  ruled;  3.  They  might,  &c.,  be  ruled. 

Perfect  Tense . 

1.  I may,  can,  must,  or  need  1.  We  may,  can,  must,  or  need 

have  been  ruled,  have  been  ruled, 

2.  Thou  mayst,  canst,  must  or  2.  You  may,  can,  must,  or  need 

needst  have  been  ruled,  have  been  ruled, 

3.  He  may,  can,  must,  or  need  3.  They  may,  can,  must,  or  need 

have  been  ruled  ; have  been  ruled. 

Pluperfect  Tense . 

1.  I might,  could,  would,  or  1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  have  been  Kuled,  should  have  been  ruled, 

2.  Thou  mightst,  &c.,  have  been  2.  You  might,  &c.,  have  been 

ruled,  ruled, 

3.  He  might,  &c.,  have  been  3.  They  might,  &c.,  have  been 

ruled ; ruled. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense . 

1.  If  I be  ruled,  1.  If  we  be  ruled, 

2.  If  thou  be  ruled,  2.  If  you  be  ruled, 

3.  If  he  be  ruled ; 3.  If  they  be  ruled, 

Imperfect  Tense . 

1.  If  I were  ruled,  1.  If  we  were  ruled, 

2.  If  thou  were  ruled,  2.  If  you  were  ruled, 

3.  If  he  were  ruled ; 3.  If  they  were  ruled. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense . 

1.  Be  I ruled,  1.  Be  we  ruled, 

2.  Be  thou  or  do  thou  be  ruled,  2.  Be  you  or  do  you  be  ruled, 

3.  Be  he  ruled  ; 3.  Be  they  ruled. 

7 


74 


THE  PROGRESSIVE  FORM. 


INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense . To  be  ruled.  Perfect  Tense.  To  have  been  ruled. 
PARTICIPLES. 

Present.  Being  ruled.  Perfect.  Ruled. 

Comp.  Perfect.  Having  been  ruled. 

EXERCISE. 

Give  the  following  parts  of  the  passive  voice  of  the  verb 
help: — Perf.  part.  Indie,  pluperf.  2d  sing.  Inf.  pres. 
Pot.  perf.  1st  plu.  Subj.  imperf.  2d  sing.  Indie,  pres. 
3d  plu.  Subj.  pres.  3d  sing.  Pot.  pres.  1st  sing.  Indie. 
2d  fu.  2d  plu.  Impera.  2d  plu.  Comp.  perf.  part. 


LESSON  L V. 

What  distinct  form  do  some  verbs  have  ? 

A form  implying  continuance,  called  the  Progres- 
sive Form. 

IIow  is  the  Progressive  Form  made  ? 

By  combining  the  participle  in  ing  with  the  various 
parts  of  the  auxiliary  he ; as,  I am  ruling , I was 
ruling , &c. 

What  verbs  have  no  Progressive  Form? 

Verbs  whose  simple  form  denotes  continuance ; as, 
love,  remember. 

Recite  the  Progressive  Form  of  the  verb  rule, 
giving  all  the  persons  in  both  numbers. 

PROGRESSIVE  FORM. 

Indicative  Mood. 

Present. — I am  ruling,  thou  art  ruling,  he  is  ruling,  &c. 

Imperfect. — I was  ruling,  thou  wast  or  wert  ruling,  &c. 

Perfect. — I have  been  ruling,  thou  hast  been  ruling,  &c. 


THE  PROGRESSIVE  FORM. 


15 


Pluperfect. — I had  been  ruling,  thou  hadst  been  ruling,  &c. 

First  Future. — I shall  or  will  be  ruling,  thou  shalt  or  wilt,  &c. 

Second  Future. — I shall  or  will  have  been  ruling,  &c. 

Potential  Mood . 

Present. — I may,  can,  must,  or  need  be  ruling. 

Imperfect. — I might,  could,  would,  or  should  be  ruling. 

Perfect. — I may,  can,  must,  or  need  have  been  ruling. 

Pluperfect. — I might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  been  ruling. 

Subjunctive  Mood. 

Present. — If  I be  ruling,  if  thou  be  ruling,  &c. 

Imperfect. — If  I were  ruling,  if  thou  were  ruling,  &c. 

Imperative  Mood. 

Present. — Be  thou  ruling  or  do  thou  be  ruling,  &c. 

Infinitive  Mood. 

Present. — To  be  ruling.  Perfect. — To  have  been  ruling. 

Participles. 

Present. — Ruling.  Comp.  Perfect. — Having  been  ruling. 

EXERCISE. 

Change  each  verb  to  the  corresponding  part  of  the  passive 
voice  and  the  progressive  form.  [Thus  : — We  have  received. 
Passive , We  have  been  received.  Progressive  Form , We 
have  been  receiving.]  He  had  hurried. — They  will  eat. — 
She  may  deceive. — To  have  injured. — I consider. — Thou 
carriest. — They  may  have  visited. — You  have  pursued.— 
They  might  have  read. — Having  explored. 


LESSON  LVI. 

What  do  we  mean  by  the  Root  of  a verb  ? 

The  present  infinitive  without  the  sign  to ; as,  rule . 


76 


REGULAR  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


What  are  the  three  Chief  Parts  of  the  verb  ? 

The  root,  the  imperfect  indicative,  and  the  perfect 
participle ; rule , ruled , ruled. 

How  are  the  imperfect  indicative  and  the  perfect  participle 
generally  formed  ? 

By  adding  ed  to  the  root ; as,  walk,  walked,  walked. 

What  are  verbs  called,  that  form  these  parts  thus  ? 

Regular  Verbs.  Walk  is  regular. 

What  are  verbs  called,  that  have  two  forms  in  either  of  these 
parts,  or  do  not  make  them  by  adding  ed  to  the  root  ? 

Irregular  Verbs;  as,  arise , arose,  arisen. 

Is  miss , missed , missed,  regular  or  irregular?  Blow , blew, 
blown  i Come,  came , come  ? Help,  helped,  helped  ? 

What  changes  must  sometimes  be  made  in  the  root  of  a regular 
verb,  before  adding  ed  ? 

1.  Final  e is  rejected;  as,  rule , rul-ed. 

2.  Final  y preceded  by  a consonant  is  changed  to 
i ; as,  cry,  crted. 

3.  The  final  consonant  of  a monosyllable,  or  of 
any  verb  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  is  doubled : as, 
pin,  pinned ; omit,  omitted. 

Observe  that  final  y preceded  by  a vowel  is  not  changed  to  i ; 
as,  play,  played. 

A verb  not  accented  on  the  last  syllable  does  not  double  its 
final  consonant ; as,  hinder,  hindered. 

In  parsing,  when  do  we  mention  the  three  chief  parts  ? 

In  parsing,  we  state  whether  the  verb  is  regular 
or  irregular ; and,  if  it  is  irregular,  we  mention  its 
three  chief  parts. 

Parsing  form. — He  arose  and  received  us. 

Arose  is  an  irregular  intransitive  verb ; from  arise,  arose,  arisen  ; 
in  the  indicative  mood,  (go  on  as  before). 


SIMPLE  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


77 


Received  is  a regular  transitive  verb,  in  the  active  voice,  indica- 
tive mood,  imperfect  tense,  &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Spell  the  three  chief  parts  of  the  following  verbs : — Love ; 
whet;  grieve;  plant;  separate;  tarry;  stray;  cloy;  man; 
moan  ; remit ; compel ; profit ; tender ; offer ; annul ; com- 
mit; abhor;  detest;  carry;  bray;  weigh;  hoe;  refer; 
dot;  doat;  grab. 

LESSON  L V II. 

TABLE  OF  SIMPLE  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

The  chief  parts  of  the  principal  simple  irregular 
verbs  are  presented  in  the  following  Table. 

Simple  verbs  will  serve  as  models  for  those  formed 
from  them ; hence  the  latter  are  not  given  separately. 
Thus  overtake  goes  like  take:  overtake , overtook , 
overtaken . 

Some  verbs,  besides  their  irregular  form,  have  a 
regular  one  in  ed . This  is  denoted  in  the  Table  by 
the  letter  R.  Recite  both  forms  in  the  order  given 
in  the  table  -—Build,  built  or  builded , built  or  builded. 

A form  in  italics,  or  a regular  form  represented 
by  an  italic  B,  is  not  now  in  good  use,  though  once 
authorized.  When  there  are  two  forms,  the  prefer- 
able one  is  placed  first. 

Each  page  of  verbs  with  the  Exercise  at  the 
bottom  may  constitute  a lesson.  Remember  that 
the  imperfect  indicative  must  not  be  used  for  the 
perfect  participle,  nor  the  perfect  participle  for  the 
imperfect  indicative.  After  the  errors  in  the  Exer- 
cise are  corrected,  the  nouns,  pronouns,  articles,  ad- 
jectives, and  verbs  (see  form  onp.  76),  may  be  parsed. 


78 


SIMPLE  IRREGULAR  VERBS, 


Boot. 

Imptrf. 

Berf  Bart. 

Boot 

Imperf 

Berf.  Bart , 

Abide, 

abode, 

abode. 

Build, 

built,  R.y 

built,  R. 

Arise, 

arose, 

arisen. 

Burn, 

R.,  burnt, 

R.,  burnt. 

Awake, 

awoke,  R.,  awoke,  R. 

Burst, 

burst, 

burst. 

Be, 

was, 

been. 

Buy, 

bought, 

bought. 

Bear 

| bore,  ) 

borne. 

Cast, 

cast, 

cast. 

(carry), 

| bare,  j 

Catch, 

caught,  R. j 

, caught,  R. 

Bear 

I bore, ) 

born. 

Chide, 

j chid, 

chidden, 

(bring  forth), 

bare , $ 

| chode, 

chid. 

Beat, 

j beaten, 

Choose, 

chose, 

chosen. 

1 

>eat, 

began, 

( beat. 

Cleave 

(adhere), 

( R.,  clove, 
clave , 

j-  cleaved. 

Begin, 

begun , 

- begun. 

Cleave 

j cleft, 

cleft, 

Behold,. 

beheld, 

beheld. 

(split), 

( clove, 

cloven,  R, 

Bend, 

bent,  R., 

bent,  R. 

Cling, 

clung, 

clung. 

Beseech, 

besought,  besought 

Clothe, 

R.,  clad, 

R.,  clad. 

Bet, 

bet,  R., 

bet,  R. 

Come, 

came, 

come. 

Bid, 

bade,  bid, 

, bidden,  bid. 

Cost, 

cost, 

cost. 

Bind, 

bound, 

bound. 

Creep, 

crept, 

crept. 

Bite, 

bit, 

bitten,  bit. 

Crow, 

crew,  R., 

crowed. 

Bleed, 

bled, 

bled. 

^Dut, 

cut, 

cut. 

Blend, 

R.,  blent,  R.,  blent. 

Bare  j 

► durst, 

dared. 

Blow, 

blew, 

blown. 

(venture),  j 

Break, 

1 

\ broke,  1 

- broken. 

Deal, 

dealt,  j R., 

dealt,  R . 

J 

Dig, 

1 

| brake , j 

dug,  A., 

dug,  R. 

Breed, 

bred, 

bred. 

Dive, 

R.,  dove, 

dived. 

Bring, 

brought, 

brought. 

Do, 

did, 

done. 

EXERCISE. 
Correct  the  errors  in  the  verbs:— 

-We  have 

born  many 

hardships. — When  were  you  borne? — The  exercises  had 
began. — The  rain  having  began,  he  betted  it  would  last  all 
day. — Has  your  father  forbade  you  to  swim? — The  wind 
has  blowed  so  hard  that  it  has  broke  some  branches  off 
your  elm. — She  bursted  out  laughing. — They  might  have 
came  yesterday,  if  they  had  chose. — She  outdone  us  all. 


SIMPLE  IRREGULAR  VERBS, 


79 


Boot. 

Imperf. 

Per/.  Part. 

Root. 

Imperf. 

Perf.  Part. 

Draw, 

drew, 

drawn. 

Grow, 

grew, 

grown. 

Dream, 

R.,  dreamt, 

R.,  dreamt. 

Hang, 

hung,  R., 

hung,  R. 

j drunk, 

Have, 

had, 

had. 

Drink, 

drank, 

| drank. 

Hear, 

heard, 

heard. 

Drive, 

drove, 

driven. 

Hew, 

hewed, 

hewn,  R. 

Dwell, 

dwelt,  R., 

dwelt,  R. 

Hide, 

hid, 

j hidden, 

Eat, 

ate,  eat, 

eaten,  eat. 

[ hid. 

Fall, 

fell, 

fallen. 

Hit,  • 

hit, 

hit. 

Feed, 

fed, 

fed. 

Hold, 

held, 

held. 

Feel, 

felt, 

felt. 

Hurt, 

Fight, 

fought, 

fought. 

Keep, 

kept, 

kept. 

Find, 

found, 

found. 

Kneel, 

knelt,  R., 

knelt,  R. 

Flee, 

fled, 

fled. 

Knit, 

knit,  R., 

knit,  R. 

Fling, 

flung, 

flung. 

Know, 

knew, 

known. 

Fiy, 

flew, 

flown. 

Lay, 

laid, 

laid. 

Forbear, 

forbore, 

forborne. 

Lead, 

led, 

led. 

Forget, 

forgot, 

j forgotten, 
j forgot. 

Lean, 

Leave, 

R.,  leant, 
left, 

R.,  leant, 
left. 

Forgive,  forgave, 

forgiven. 

Lend, 

lent, 

lent. 

Forsake, 

forsook, 

forsaken. 

Let, 

let, 

let. 

Freeze, 

froze, 

frozen. 

Lie  (recline),  lay, 

lain. 

Get, 

got,  gat , 

got,  gotten. 

Light, 

R.,  lit, 

R.,  lit. 

Gird, 

girt,  R., 

girt,  R. 

Lose, 

lost, 

lost. 

Give, 

gave, 

given. 

Make, 

made, 

made. 

Go, 

went, 

gone. 

Mean, 

meant,  R. 

, meant,  R. 

Grind, 

ground, 

ground. 

Meet, 

met, 

met. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct : — He  done  it. — She  has  overcame  every  obstacle. 
— They  should  have  drawed  lots. — You  drunk  too  much,  I 
fear. — That  horse  has  been  overdrove. — They  have  ate  up 
their  oats. — Have  they  fell  out? — How  those  dogs  have  fit ! 
— I have  forborn  complaining. — Has  he  forgave  you? — You 
should  not  have  forsook  your  friends. — They  need  not  have 
went  so  soon. — Your  garden  is  overgrowed  with  weeds. 


80 


SIMPLE  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


Boot. 

Itnperf 

Per/  Part. 

Boot. 

Imperf. 

Per/  Part. 

Mow, 

mowed. 

mown,  R. 

Shoe, 

shod, 

shod. 

Pay, 

paid, 

paid. 

Shoot, 

shot, 

shot. 

Plead, 

R.,  pled, 

R.,  pled. 

Show, 

showed, 

shown,  R. 

Put, 

put, 

put. 

Shrink, 

j shrunk, 

shrunk, 

Quit, 

quit,  R., 

quit,  R. 

) shrank , 

shrunken . 

Read, 

read, 

read. 

Shut, 

shut, 

shut. 

Rend, 

rent, 

rent. 

Sing, 

sung,  sang, 

sung. 

Rid, 

rid, 

rid. 

Sink, 

sunk,  sank, 

sunk. 

Ride, 

rode, 

ridden, rode. 

Sit, 

sat, 

sat,  sitten. 

Ring, 

rung,  rang, 

rung. 

Slay, 

slew, 

slain. 

Rise, 

rose, 

risen. 

Sleep, 

slept, 

slept. 

Roast, 

roasted, 

R.,  roast. 

Slide, 

1 slidden, 

Run, 

ran,  run, 

run. 

slid, 

J slid. 

Saw, 

sawed, 

R.,  sawn. 

Sling, 

( slung, ) 

slung. 

Say, 

said, 

said. 

l slang , ) 

See, 

saw, 

seen. 

i slunk, ) 

Seek, 

sought, 

sought. 

Slink, 

J slank,  f 

slunk. 

Sell, 

sold, 

sold. 

Slit, 

slit,  R., 

slit,  R. 

Send, 

sent, 

sent. 

Smite, 

j smitten, 

Set, 

set, 

set. 

smote, 

| smit. 

Shake, 

shook,  B., 

shaken. 

Sow, 

sowed, 

R.,  sown. 

Shape, 

shaped, 

R.,  shapen. 

Speak, 

j spoke, ) 

spoken. 

Shave, 

shaved, 

R.,  shaven. 

j spake , f 

Shear, 

sheared, 

shorn,  R. 

Speed, 

sped,  R., 

sped,  R. 

Shed, 

shed, 

shed. 

Spend, 

spent, 

spent. 

Shine, 

shone,  R., 

shone,  R. 

Spill, 

R.,  spilt, 

R.,  spilt. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct: — Has  she  forgave  yon? — He  must  have  froze 
his  feet. — He  has  outgrowed  the  disease. — Have  you  heard 
how  Robert  hurted  himself? — I knowed  you  had  laid  down. 
— You  must  have  rid  fast. — I seen  him  yesterday. — She  has 
ran  herself  out  of  breath. — They  sat  a trap  by  the  river. — 
Have  you  shook  the  carpet? — Your  coat  has  shrank. — 
Having  sang,  he  took  his  leave. — I have  not  spoke  a word. 


SIMPLE  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


81 


Root. 

Imperf 

Per/.  Part. 

Root. 

Imperf. 

Perf  Part 

Spin, 

Spit, 

spun,  span , 
j spit, 

spun. 

spit, 

Swim, 

j swum,  j 
j swam,  \ 

swum. 

( spat , 

spitten. 

Swing, 

j swung,  J 

swung. 

Split, 

split,  R., 

split,  R . 

| swang , ) 

Spread, 

spread, 

spread. 

Take, 

took, 

taken. 

Spring, 

j sprung, ) 

Teach, 

taught, 

taught. 

( sprang,  f 

sprung. 

Tear, 

tore, 

torn. 

Stand, 

stood, 

stood. 

Tell, 

told, 

told. 

Stay, 

R.,  staid, 

R.,  staid. 

Think, 

thought, 

thought. 

Steal, 

stole, 

stolen. 

Thrive, 

throve,  R., 

thriven,  R. 

Stick, 

stuck, 

stuck. 

Throw, 

threw, 

thrown. 

Sting, 

stung, 

stung. 

Thrust, 

thrust, 

thrust. 

Stink, 

j stunk, ) 

stunk. 

( trodden, 

( stank , ) 

Tread, 

trod, 

( trod. 

Stride,, 

j strode, 

stridden, 

Wake, 

R.,  woke, 

R.,  woke. 

| strid, 

strid. 

Wear, 

wore, 

worn. 

Strike, 

struck, 

j struck, 

Weave, 

wove,  R ., 

woven,  R. 

( stricken. 

Wed, 

R.,  wed, 

R.,  wed. 

String, 

strung, 

strung. 

Weep, 

wept, 

wept. 

Strive, 

strove, 

striven,  R. 

Wet, 

wet,  R., 

wet,  R. 

Strow, 

strowed, 

strown,  R. 

Win, 

won, 

won. 

Swear, 

j swore, ) 

sworn. 

Wind  j 

- wound, 

wound. 

| sware , ) 

(twine),  1 

Sweat, 

sweat,  R., 

sweat,  R. 

Work, 

R.,  wrought,  R., wrought. 

Sweep, 

swept, 

swept. 

Wring, 

wrung, 

wrung. 

Swell, 

swelled, 

R.,  swollen. 

Write, 

wrote, 

written. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct : — Having  came  in  late,  they  set  by  the  door. — 
Cities  have  sprang  up,  as  if  by  magic. — He  must  have  stole 
it. — Where  have  they  swam  to  ? — Who  teached  you  ? — You 
have  tore  your  book. — He  thro  wed  me  down. — Your  shoes 
have  wore  well. — They  winned  the  match.— Have  you  writ 
your  exercise? — Had  you  wrote  to  your  mother? — They 
rended  their  garments. — I foreseen  he  would  fail. 

4* 


82 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 


LESSON  L VIII. 


What  is  a Defective  Verb? 

A Defective  Verb  is  one  that  wants  some  of  its 
parts.  The  principal  defective  verbs  are  ought , be- 
ware, methinks , and  meseems. 


In  what  tenses  does  ought  appear  ? 

Ought  appears  only  in  the  present  and  imperfect 
indicative  and  subjunctive.  It  is  conjugated  thus : — 


Pres,  and  Imperf.  Ind. 

1.  I ought,  We  ought, 

2.  Thou  oughtest,  You  ought, 

3.  He  ought ; They  ought. 


Pres,  and  Imperf.  Subj. 

1.  If  I ought,  If  we  ought, 

2.  If  thou  ought,  If  you  ought, 

3.  If  he  ought ; If  they  ought. 


In  what  tenses  does  beware  appear  ? 

Beware,  compounded  of  be  and  ware,  is  used  only 
in  those  tenses  which  in  the  verb  be  retain  be  : — 

Ind.  First  Fu. — I shall  or  will  be  ware  ; thou  shalt  or  wilt,  &c. 

Potential  Pres. — I may,  can,  must,  or  need  beware. 

Potential  Imperf. — I might,  could,  would,  or  should  beware. 

Subjunctive  Pres. — If  I beware  ; if  thou  foware,  &c. 

Imperative  Pres.,  2d  person. — ifcware  thou ; beware  you. 

Infinitive  Pres. — To  beware. 

In  what  part  are  methinks  and  meseems  ? 

Methinks  and  meseems,  meaning  it  seems  to  me, 
are  in  the  indicative,  present,  third,  singular. 

In  what  other  part  are  they  also  used  ? 

In  the  third  singular  of  the  imperfect  indicative, — 
methought  and  meseemed . 

What  are  methinks  and  meseems  called  ? 

Unipersonal  Verbs,  because  they  are  used  in  but 
one  person.  They  never  admit  of  a subject,  and 
hence  in  parsing  no  rule  can  be  given  for  their  agree- 
ment. 


A REVIEW. 


83 


Parsing  forms. — -Methinks  you  ought  to  beware 
of  such  false  friends. 

Methinks  is  a unipersonal  intransitive  verb,  in  the  indicative 
mood,  present  tense,  3d  person,  singular  number ; has  no  subject. 

Ought  is  a defective  intransitive  verb,  in  the  indicative  mood, 
present  tense,  second  person,  plural  number,  and  agrees  with  its 
subject  you  : — Rule , A verb  agrees  with  its  subject,  &c. 

To  beware  is  a defective  intransitive  verb,  in  the  infinitive  mood, 
present  tense,  and  limits  the  meaning  of  the  verb  ought : — Rule , A 
verb  in  the  infinitive  is  used  as  a subject,  &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nouns,  pronouns,  articles,  adjectives,  and  verbs: 
— We  ought  to  beware  of  faults  into  which  we  have  once 
been  betrayed. — Ought  you  not  to  forgive  your  enemies  ? — 
Methinks  I hear  Demosthenes  thundering  in  the  market- 
place.— If  thou  beware  of  flatterers,  thou  wilt  do  well. — 
Methought  I had  passed  the  gates  of  death. — Meseems  a 
demon  watcheth  thee. 


LESSON  LIX. 

A REVIEW. 

What  is  a verb  ? What  is  the  greatest  number  of  words  that 
may  form  a verb  ? What  are  may,  must,  and  other  little  words 
that  aid  in  forming  the  tenses,  called  ? What  is  the  difference  be- 
tween a transitive  and  an  intransitive  verb  ? Which  of  these  has 
voice  ? When  is  a verb  called  finite  ? What  is  mood  ? What  is 
tense  ? 

Which  mood  has  the  most  tenses  ? Which,  the  next  most  ? 
Which  moods  are  used  in  asking  questions  ? What  have  you  found 
with  respect  to  the  subject  of  a verb  in  the  imperative  ? On  what 
do  the  person  and  number  of  a verb  depend  ? What  is  a participle  ? 
How  many  participles  are  there  ? In  what  case  must  a substantive 
be  put,  that  modifies  a participle  ? k 


84 


A REVIEW. 


When  are  the  forms  containing  do  and  did  used  ? What  is  the 
solemn  form  for  the  third  singular  of  the  present  indicative  active  ? 
How  are  the  tenses  of  the  passive  voice  formed  ? How  are  the 
tenses  of  the  progressive  form  made  ? What  does  the  progressive 
form  imply  ? What  is  the  difference  between  a regular  and  an 
irregular  verb  ? What  is  a defective  verb  ? 

EXERCISE. 

Give  the  three  chief  parts  of  the  following  irregular 
verbs,  remembering  that  they  go  like  the  simple  verbs  from 
which  they  are  formed: — Unstring;  mistake;  overcome; 
forbid  ; overthrow  ; forego  ; overhear  ; undersell ; misgive ; 
rebuild ; underlet ; remake  ; overpay  ; uprise ; foresee ; un- 
weave ; outwork  ; rewrite  ; understand ; acquit  ( regular ) ; 
demean  ( reg .) ; unclothe  ( reg .) ; implead  ( reg .). 


LESSON  LX. 

What  is  the  sixth  part  of  speech  ? 

The  Adverb. 

When  I say,  “ He  soon  became  very  angry,”  by  what  is  the 
verb  became  modified  ? 

By  soon , which  tells  when  he  became  angry. 

By  what  is  the  adjective  angry  modified? 

By  very , which  tells  how  angry  he  became. 

What  are  soon , very , and  other  words  so  used,  called  ? 

Adverbs. 

What  else  may  an  adverb  modify  ? 

Another  adverb ; as,  “ He  spoke  very  angrily.” 
What  is  an  Adverb  ? 

An  Adverb  is  a word  expressing  manner,  time, 
place,  degree,  &c.,  and  generally  used  to  modify  a 
verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb. 


ADVERBS. 


85 


Give  examples  of  adverbs,  arranged  according  to  their  meaning. 

The  following  are  examples  of  adverbs  : — 

1.  Adverbs  of  manner. — How  ? Thus , so,  well , illy  somehow , 
otherwise , slowly , and  most  words  ending  in  /p. 

2.  Time. — When  ? Then , wow;,  already , formerly , to-day,  yester- 
day, to-morrow , soon,  early,  daily , seldom,  often , ever,  always. 

3.  Place. — TP7iere  / Here , there , wherever , whither , hither, 
thither,  whence , hence,  thence,  away,  off , far , wp,  down. 

4.  Degree. — Much,  little,  very,  exceedingly,  greatly,  quite, 
enough,  equally,  scarcely,  nearly,  almost. 

5.  Affirmation. — Fes,  ay,  certainly,  truly,  indeed,  doubtless , 
undoubtedly,  amen. 

6.  Negation. — Wo,  wop,  wo£,  nowise,  nohow,  never . 

7.  Possibility. — Perhaps,  perchance , maybe,  haply. 

8.  Number. — i^rs£  (which  is  preferable  to  firstly),  secondly, 
thirdly,  &c. ; owee,  tfwzce,  thrice . 

Which  class  of  adverbs  is  the  largest  ? 

Adverbs  of  manner.  Many  of  these  are  formed 
from  adjectives  by  adding  ; as,  ruddy  from  rwcfe. 

EXERCISE. 

Insert  cudverbs  of  manner : Do  your  work . Jane 

walks . When  the  sun  shines , the  birds  sing . 

How the  wind  roars  in  March ! Speak  to  all 

men  ; do  not  talk . How Maria  sings ! 

Insert  adverbs  of  time,  place,  or  degree : Smart  boys  get 

up . Henry’s  dog  has  run  ; shall  he  look 

for  it?  We  can  travel  more  rapidly  than  we 

could.  They  were  tired.  We  can  find 

enough  to  do. 


LESSON  LXI. 

Does  the  same  word  ever  appear  in  one  sentence  as  an  adverb, 
and  in  another  as  some  other  part  of  speech  ? 

It  does,  as  in  the  following  examples 


80 


ADVERBS. 


He  will  start  to-morrow  (adv.).  To-morrow  (noun)  may  never 
come. — Only  (adv.)  believe.  An  only  (adjective)  son. — Crack 
(adv.)  went  the  mast.  The  mast  will  crack  (verb). — ’Twas  passing 
(adv.)  strange.  Passing  (participle)  the  door. — But  (adv.)  five 
were  there.  But  (conjunction)  what  did  you  say? 

From  what  must  adverbs  be  carefully  distinguished  ? 

Adverbs  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  ad- 
jectives. They  sometimes  have  the  same  form.  In 
this  case,  if  the  word  modifies  a substantive,  it  is  an 
adjective ; but,  if  it  modifies  a verb,  adjective,  or  ad- 
verb, it  is  an  adverb.  Thus  : — 

Adjectives. — An  upward  flight ; cleanly  habits  ; the  above  rules  ; 
the  first  fruits;  Sarah  is  well ; the  very  man  ; a daily  paper. 

Adverbs. — To  fly  upward;  to  live  cleanly;  look  above;  he 
spoke  first ; Sarah  reads  well ; very  g ayly;  he  goes  daily. 

When  there  are  distinct  forms  for  adverb  and  adjective,  what 
caution  must  be  observed  ? 

Hot  to  interchange  them.  The  adjective  must  be 
used  with  a substantive,  and  the  adverb  with  a verb 
or  adjective.  Thus  : — 

A soon  answer  ; the  now  governor . Wrong,  because  the  adverbs 
soon  and  noiv  are  joined  to  nouns.  Correct  by  substituting  adjec- 
tives : — a speedy  answer ; the  present  governor. 

Lead  is  melted  easier  than  iron.  This  tea  is  uncommon  good. 
Wrong,  because  the  adjective  easier  is  joined  to  the  verb  is  melted , 
and  the  adjective  uncommon  to  the  adjective  good . Correct  by 
substituting  adverbs  : — Lead  is  melted  more  easily  than  iron.  This 
tea  is  uncommonly  good. 

What  is  a Conjunctive  Adverb  ? 

A Conjunctive  Adverb  is  one  that  connects  parts 
of  a sentence  ; as,  “ Remain  there  till  I come.” 

Mention  some  of  the  most  common  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Why,  how , when,  where,  after,  before,  till . 


COMPARISON-  OF  ADVERBS. 


87 


EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nouns , adjectives , verbs;  select  the  adverbs: 

— IIow  pure  is  the  air  at  early  dawn ! — Start  early,  or  your 
work  will  get  ahead  of  you. — Have  you  no  mercy?  Ho, 
none  for  idlers. — Sleep  on  now,  and  take  your  rest. — How 
is  the  time  to  repent. — The  miser  never  has  enough. — You 
have  not  studied  enough. 

Correct , and  give  the  reasons  : — I hope  for  a soon  return. 
— Think  of  your  hereafter  life. — Your  often  lateness  puts 
you  back. — Hever  behave  rude. — How  graceful  she  walks ! 
— John  speaks  more  correct  than  most  persons. — The  then 
mayor  was  present. 


LESSON  L X II. 

What  part  of  speech  have  we  learned  to  compare  ? How  many 
degrees  of  comparison  are  there  ? What  is  the  positive  degree  ? 
The  comparative  ? The  superlative  ? 

What  besides  adjectives  are  compared? 

A few  adverbs  of  one  and  two  syllables  are  com- 
pared, like  adjectives,  by  adding  er  for  the  compara- 


tive,  and  est  for  the  superlative.  Thus  : — 

Pos.  Comp. 

Sup. 

Pos.  Comp. 

Sup. 

Late,  later, 

latest. 

1 Early,  earlier, 

earliest. 

East,  faster, 

fastest. 

1 Often,  oftener, 

oftenestp 

Mention  some  adverbs  that  are  compared  irregularly. 
The  following  are  compared  irregularly : — 


Pos. 

Comp. 

Sup. 

Pos. 

Comp. 

Sup. 

Badly,  ill,  worse, 

worst, 

Much, 

more, 

most. 

Well, 

better, 

best. 

Far, 

farther, 

farthest. 

Little, 

less, 

least. 

Forth, 

further, 

furthest. 

How  are  more  and  most  often  used  ? 

More  and  most  are  often  used  before  adjectives 


88 


PARSING  OF  ADVERBS. 


and  adverbs,  to  give  them  the  force  of  the  compara- 
tive and  superlative  degree ; as,  more  graceful,  most 
gracefully. 

How  can  we  find  what  an  adverb  modifies  ? 

By  asking  a question  with  what.  “ Is  that  sum 
hard  ? Yes ; veryP  Very  what  f Answer,  very 
hard.  Very  modifies  the  adjective  hard  understood. 

We  see,  then,  that  the  word  modified  by  an  adverb 
may  be  understood. 

Is  an  adverb  ever  used  without  modifying  any  particular  word  ? 

Yes,  and  it  is  then  said  to  be  used  independently. 

Give  examples  of  adverbs  used  independently. 

Yes  and  no  in  answers  ; amen  at  the  end  of  pray- 
ers ; forth  in  the  expression  and  so  forth ; firsts 
secondly , thirdly , &c.,  introducing  particulars. 

Recite  Rule  XV.,  for  the  adverb. 

Rule  XY. — An  adverb  relates  to  the  word  or 
words  whose  meaning  it  modifies,  or  stands  inde- 
pendently in  the  sentence. 

How  must  we  parse  an  adverb  ? 

To  parse  an  adverb,  compare  it  and  state  its  degree, 
if  it  can  be  compared ; tell  what  it  relates  to  or  state 
that  it  is  used  independently  ; if  a conjunctive  adverb, 
tell  what  it  connects  and  what  it  relates  to ; finally, 
give  Rule  XY. 

Parsing  form. — Yes , I shall  go  farther , till  I 
find  the  spot. 

Yes  is  an  adverb,  used  independently  : — Rule,  An  adverb  relates 
to  the  word  or  words  whose  meaning  it  modifies,  or  stands  inde- 
pendently in  the  sentence. 

Farther  is  an  adverb  ; far , farther , farthest ; in  the  comparative 
degree,  and  relates  to  the  verb  shall  go  :—Rule , An  adverb,  &c. 


THE  PREPOSITION. 


89 


Till  is  a conjunctive  adverb;  it  connects  I shall  go  farther 
and  I find  the  spot , and  relates  to  the  verb  shall  go  : — Rule , An 
adverb,  &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nouns , pronouns , articles , adjectives , 
adverbs : — Judge  not  too  hastily. — Compose  carefully,  if  you 
would  compose  correctly. — He  who  rises  late  certainly  loses 
the  best  part  of  the  day. — The  more  we  study,  the  better 
we  like  to  study. — He  then  asked  me  when  and  where  this 
took  place. — We  have  far  greater  facilities  for  education 
now  than  formerly ; but  perhaps  we  value  them  less. 


LESSON  L XIII. 

Name  the  parts  of  speech.  Which  is  the  seventh  ? 

The  Preposition. 

When  I say  “Washington  marched  to  Princeton,”  what  word 
shows  the  relation  between  the  marching  and  Princeton  ? 

To  ; not  from  Princeton,  nor  round  Princeton, 
nor  past  Princeton,  but  to  Princeton.  The  words  in 
italics  express  different  relations,  and  are  called  Prepo- 
sitions. 

What  may  a preposition  have  for  its  object  ? 

1.  A noun  ; as,  about  the  room . 

2.  A pronoun ; as,  about  us. 

3.  An  infinitive ; as,  about  to  commence. 

4.  A participle  ; as,  about  commencing. 

What  is  a Preposition  ? 

A Preposition  is  a word  used  to  show  the  relation 
that  a substantive,  infinitive,  or  participle  bears  to 
some  other  term  in  the  sentence. 

What  is  an  Adjunct  ? 

An  Adjunct  is  an  expression  consisting  of  a prepo- 


90 


LIST  OF  PREPOSITIONS. 


sition,  its  object,  and  tbe  words  that  modify  the 
latter;  as,  “ Croesus  was  noted  for  his  houndless 
wealth .” 

Mention  some  of  the  principal  prepositions. 

The  prepositions  in  common  use  are, 


a, 

at, 

despite, 

on, 

touching, 

aboard, 

before, 

down, 

over, 

toward, 

about, 

behind, 

during, 

past, 

towards, 

above, 

below, 

ere, 

pending, 

under, 

across, 

beneath, 

except, 

regarding, 

underneath, 

after, 

beside, 

excepting, 

respecting, 

until, 

against, 

besides, 

for, 

round, 

unto, 

along, 

between, 

from, 

save, 

up, 

amid, 

betwixt, 

in, 

since, 

upon, 

amidst, 

beyond, 

into, 

through, 

versus, 

among, 

but, 

notwithstanding,  throughout, 

with, 

amongst, 

by. 

of, 

till, 

within, 

around, 

concerning, 

off, 

to, 

without. 

EXERCISE. 

Supply  prepositions:  Alfred,  the  son  Ethel  wolf, 

succeeded the  crown  of  England the  year  871. 

his  reign,  England  was  invaded the  Danes.  He 

had  many  battles them,  and  at  last, having  been 

defeated  several  times,  succeeded  routing  them 

great  slaughter.  From  this  time his  death  he  labored 

the  improvement  of  his  subjects,  and  he  was, a 

doubt,  one  the  best  kings  that  ever  reigned  

England. 


LESSON  LXIV. 

Are  the  words  in  the  above  list  always  prepositions  ? 

No;  they  ire  prepositions  only  when  they  express 
some  relation,  and  have  an  object. 


PAUSING  OF  PREPOSITIONS. 


91 


When  used  without  an  object,  what  are  many  of  these  words  ? 

Adverbs.  “Look  above  this  earth;”  above  is  a 
preposition,  having  earth  for  its  object.  “ Look 
above;”  here  there  is  no  object,  and  above  is  an 
adverb. 

How  is  a compound  relation  expressed  ? 

By  two  prepositions,  which  are  taken  together  in 
parsing  and  called  a Complex  Preposition  ; as,  from 
within  the  house. 

How  does  a preposition  generally  stand  ? 

Before  its  object.  The  word  pre-position  means 
a placing  before. 

Hoes  the  preposition  ever  stand  after  its  object  ? 

Yes,  the  relatives  that  and  as  always  precede  the 
preposition  that  governs  them  ; as,  “ The  world  that 
we  live  in  is  a world  of  trial.” 

How  can  we  find  the  former  term  of  the  relation  ? 

By  asking  a question  with,  what  before  the  prepo- 
sition. Thus  : — “ In  a multitude  of  counsellors  there 
is  wisdom.”  What  in  a multitude  ? Answer,  is  in  a 
multitude ; the  preposition  in  shows  the  relation 
between  the  noun  multitude  and  the  verb  is. 

Is  the  former  term  of  the  relation  ever  understood  ? 

It  is,  as  in  the  following  sentence : “ [Looking] 
On  the  whole,  I prefer  Spring.” 

Recite  Rule  XVI.,  relating  to  prepositions. 

Rule  XVI. — A preposition  shows  the  relation 
that  a substantive,  infinitive,  or  participle,  bears  to 
some  other  word  or  words  in  the  sentence. 

Parsing  form. — Over  against  Troy  is  the  island 
I spoke  of 


92 


THE  CONJUNCTION. 


Over  against  is  a complex  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation 
between  the  noun  Troy,  which  is  its  object,  and  the  verb  is : — Rule , 
A preposition  shows  the  relation  that  a substantive,  &c. 

Of  is  a preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  between  the  relative 
pronoun  that  understood,  which  is  its  object,  and  the  verb  spoke 
Rule , A preposition  shows  the  relation,  &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  each  icord : — The  boa  is  the  largest  of  serpents. 
Suspending  itself  by  the  tail  from  some  tree  beside  a river, 
it  lies  in  wait  for  its  prey,  darting  with  great  rapidity  on 
whatever  living  creature  first  comes  within  its  reach.  Wind- 
ing its  folds  around  its  victim,  it  crushes  him  to  death  by 
the  immense  power  of  its  muscles,  despite  his  most  violent 
efforts  to  escape. 


LESSON  LEV. 

Name  the  parts  of  speech.  Which  is  the  eighth  ? 

The  Conjunction. 

“ But,  if  you  go,  he  and  I will  remain.”  What  words  are  used 
as  connectives  in  this  sentence  ? 

But  is  used  to  connect  the  sentence  with  what 
goes  before.  If  connects  parts  of  the  sentence, — 
you  go  and  lie  and  I will  remain . And  connects  the 
words  he  and  I 

What  are  words  thus  used  as  connectives  called  ? 

Conjunctions. 

What  is  a Conjunction? 

A Conjunction  is  a word  used  to  connect  words, 
sentences,  or  parts  of  a sentence. 

Mention  some  of  the  principal  conjunctions. 

The  principal  conjunctions  are  as  follows : — 


LIST  OF  CONJUNCTIONS. 


93 


although, 

either, 

neither, 

save, 

then, 

and, 

even, 

nevertheless, 

seeing, 

though, 

as, 

except, 

nor, 

since, 

unless, 

because, 

for, 

notwithstanding, 

so, 

yet, 

both, 

or, 

than, 

whereas, 

but, 

lest, 

provided, 

that, 

whether. 

Are  the  words  in  the  above  list  always  conjunctions? 

No ; several  of  them  are  also  used  as  other  parts 
of  speech.  They  are  conjunctions  only  when  they 
connect.  Observe  the  following  examples : — 

Both  (conj.)  Alexander  and  Caesar  were  great  conquerors,  and 
both  (adj.  pro.)  met  with  an  untimely  end. — They  say  that  (conj.) 
that  (pro.  adj.)  house  that  (rel.  pro.)  we  just  passed  is  haunted. — 
Help  such  as  (rel.  pro.)  need  help. — Some  savage  nations,  as  (con- 
junctive adv.)  I have  heard,  worship  the  sun  as  (conj.)  a god. 

What  is  a Complex  Conjunction  ? 

A Complex  Conjunction  is  one  that  consists  of  two 
or  more  connectives,  which  must  be  taken  together 
in  parsing.  Inasmuch  as,  as  well  as,  as  if,  as  though , 
for  all,  are  complex  conjunctions. 

Recite  Rule  XVII.,  relating  to  conjunctions. 

Rule  XVII. — A conjunction  connects  words,  sen- 
tences, or  parts  of  a sentence. 

Parsing  form. — Yet  Jefferson,  as  well  as  Madi- 
son, was  a Virginian. 

Yet  is  a conjunction,  and  connects  the  sentence  with  what  goes 
before  : — Rule , A conjunction  connects  words,  sentences,  or  parts 
of  a sentence. 

As  well  as  is  a complex  conjunction,  and  connects  the  two 
nouns  Jefferson  and  Madison  : — Rule , A conjunction  connects,  &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  each  word : — We  are  told  that  Brutus  doomed  his 
own  sons  to  death  ; yet  he  loved  them  as  only  a father  or  a 


94 


THE  INTERJECTION. 


mother  can  love. — To  injure  another  because  he  has  injured 
us,  is  both  foolish  and  wicked. — Astronomers  can  not  tell 
whether  the  other  planets  are  inhabited  or  not ; but  it  is 
commonly  believed  that  they  are. — Neither  fame  nor  wealth 
can  insure  happiness  to  its  possessor. 


LESSON  LXVI. 

Name  the  parts  of  speech.  Which  is  the  ninth  and  last  ? 

The  Interjection. 

What  is  an  Interjection  ? 

An  Interjectfbn  is  a word  used  independently  of 
grammatical  relations,  to  express  some  strong  or 
sudden  emotion  of  the  mind. 

Mention  the  principal  interjections. 

The  following  are  the  principal  interjections,  ar- 
ranged according  to  the  emotions  they  express : — 

1.  Exultation . Ah  ! aha  ! hey  ! heyday  ! hurrah  ! huzza  ! 

2.  Sorrow.  Ah  ! oh ! alas  ! alack  ! lackaday  ! welladay  ! 

3.  Wonder.  Ha ! indeed ! strange  ! what ! hoity-toity  ! zounds ! 

4.  Approval.  Bravo  ! well-done  ! 

5.  Contempt , aversion.  Faugh  ! fie  ! fudge  ! pugh ! pshaw  ! tut ! 

6.  Weariness.  Heigh-ho ! 

7.  Merriment.  Ha,  ha,  ha ! (an  imitation  of  the  sound  of  laughter). 

8.  Desire  to  drive  away.  Aroynt ! avaunt ! begone  ! off ! shoo  ! 

9.  Desire  to  address  or  salute.  0,  hail ! all-hail ! welcome  ! 

10.  Desire  for  one's  welfare  on  leaving.  Adieu ! farewell ! good-by ! 

11.  Desire  for  attention.  Ho!  what  ho  ! hallo!  ahoy!  lo  ! hark! 

12.  Desire  for  silence.  Hist!  whist!  hush!  mum! 

13.  Desire  to  stop  or  interrupt  another.  Avast!  hold!  soft! 

14.  Desire  for  information.  Eh  ? hey  ? 

By  what  point  are  interjections  generally  followed  ? 

By  the  exclamation-point  (!).  (?,  which  must 


PARSING  OF  INTERJECTIONS. 


95 


always  be  a capital,  takes  no  point  after  it.  Eh  and 
hey , implying  a question,  are  followed  by  the  interroga- 
tion-point. 

Do  interjections  bear  grammatical  relations  to  other  words  ? 

They  do  not.  They  neither  govern  nor  are  gov- 
erned, neither  agree  with  other  words  nor  relate  to 
them.  Hence  no  rule  is  needed  in  parsing  them. 

A substantive  following  an  interjection  is  generally  in  the  nomi- 
native independent ; as,  “ Alas  ! unhappy  we  /” 

If  a substantive  in  the  possessive  or  objective  case  follows,  it 
is  not  governed  by  the  interjection,  but  by  some  word  understood ; 
as,  “ Oh  my  [that  is,  Oh  my  hard  lot\  ! ” “ Oh  dear  me  \_x>ity 

dear  me  ] ! ” 

Parsing  form. — Fie  ! are  you  still  abed? 

Fie  is  an  interjection,  implying  contempt. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  each  word : — Farewell,  vain  hopes ! — Hist ! I hear 
a noise. — Bravo ! such  an  effort  deserved  success. — What ! 
art  thou  really  here?  Well-done! — Off!  begone!  a slan- 
derer is  beneath  contempt. — O grave,  where  is  thy  sting  ? — 
Ah ! that  deceit  should  steal  such  gentle  shapes ! — Alas ! 
the  heavy  day ! — Hallo ! who  goes  there  ? 


LESSON  LXVIL 

The  seventeen  Rules  of  Syntax  that  have  been 
given  under  the  different  parts  of  speech,  are  now 
presented  together  for  convenience  of  reference. 

Rule  I. — A substantive  that  is  the  subject  of  a verb  is 
in  the  nominative  case. 

Rule  II. — A substantive  used  independently  is  in  the 
nominative  case. 


96 


BULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


Bule  III. — A substantive  that  modifies  a noun  denoting 
a different  person  or  thing,  by  implying  possession,  origin, 
or  fitness,  is  in  the  possessive  case. 

Bule  IY. — A substantive  that  is  the  object  of  a verb  or 
preposition  is  in  the  objective  case. 

Bule  V. — A modifying  substantive,  denoting  time,  direc- 
tion, extent,  quantity,  or  value,  often  stands  in  the  objective 
case  without  a preposition. 

Bule  YI. — One  substantive  joined  to  another  denoting 
the  same  person  or  thing,  is  in  the  same  case. 

Bule  YII. — A verb  that  has  no  object  tabes  the  same 
case  after  as  before  it,  when  both  words  refer  to  the  same 
person  or  thing. 

Bule  YIII. — A relative  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in 
person  and  number. 

Bule  IX. — An  article  relates  to  the  word  whose  mean- 
ing it  limits. 

Bule  X. — An  adjective  relates  to  the  substantive  whose 
meaning  it  qualifies  or  limits. 

Bule  XI. — A verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person  and 
number. 

Bule  XII. — A verb  in  the  infinitive  is  used  as  a subject, 
or  limits  the  meaning  of  some  other  word,  or  stands  inde- 
pendently in  the  sentence. 

Bule  XIII. — Participles  are  used  independently,  or  re- 
late to  the  substantives  whose  meaning  they  qualify  or  limit. 

Bule  XIY. — A substantive  which,  in  stead  of  being 
modified  by  a participle,  is  made  to  modify  the  latter,  is  put 
in  the  possessive  case. 

Bule  XY. — An  adverb  relates  to  the  word  or  words 
whose  meaning  it  modifies,  or  stands  independently  in  the 
sentence. 


ELLIPSIS. 


97 


Rule  XVI. — A preposition  shows  the  relation  that  a 
substantive,  infinitive,  or  participle,  bears  to  some  other 
word  or  words  in  the  sentence. 

Rule  XVII. — A conjunction  connects  words,  sentences, 
or  parts  of  a sentence. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  each  word : — 

“ Hope  humbly  then ; with  trembling  pinions  soar ; 
Wait  the  great  teacher,  Death ; and  God  adore. 

What  future  bliss,  He  gives  not  thee  to  know, 

But  gives  that  hope  to  be  thy  blessing  now. 

Hope  springs  eternal  in  the  human  breast ; 

Man  never  is,  but  always  to  be,  blessed : 

The  soul,  uneasy  and  confined  from  home, 

Rests  and  expatiates  on  a life  to  come.” 


LESSON  L XVIII. 

What  is  Ellipsis  ? 

Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  words  essential  to  the 
construction,  though  not  to  the  sense. 

What  is  said  of  words  omitted  by  ellipsis  ? 

They  are  said  to  be  understood . They  must  be 
supplied  in  parsing,  to  explain  the  government,  agree- 
ment, or  relation  of  the  words  expressed. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  each  word . In  the  Tcey  sentences , the  words  under - 
stood  are  supplied  within  brackets : — As  [it]  regards  harbors, 
Denmark  is  well  provided. — As  far  as  concerns  the  dodo,  it 
has  become  extinct  within  two  centuries. — Goldsmith  was 
more  lavish  of  his  money,  when  he  had  it,  than  was  prudent. 
— Buy  no  more  furniture  than  [what]  is  needed. 

9 


98 


ELLIPTICAL  PARSING. 


The  poor  [persons]  are  often  happier  than  tlie  rich. — Tt 
is  base  to  be  [a]  dishonest  [person], — Whose  [property]  is 
this  apple?  Arthur’s. — Call  at  the  doctor’s  [office]. — Stop 
at  Johnson’s  and  buy  [for]  me  some  flour. — Give  [to]  me 
your  hand. — You  should  offer  the  lady  your  seat. — When 
did  he  depart  this  life  ? 

He  saveth  [him]  whom  He  will  [save]. — Whom  He  loveth, 
He  chasteneth. — It  is  labor  enables  us  to  enjoy  rest. — [Go] 
On,  my  gallant  boys ! — Away  to  your  places. — Some  men 
prize  honor  more  than  [they  prize]  gold. — Air  is  827  times 
(obj.  case,  according  to  Rule  Y.)  lighter  than  water  [is], — 
I am  going ; [I  wish  you]  good  evening. — Good-by  ! success 
to  you! — Milton’s  poetry  is  more  sublime  than  Virgil’s. 


LESSON  L X I X . 

What  is  a Sentence  ? 

A Sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as 
makes  complete  sense. 

As  regards  their  meaning,  how  are  sentences  divided  ? 

Into  four  classes ; Declarative,  Interrogative,  Im- 
perative, and  Exclamatory. 

What  is  a Declarative  Sentence  ? 

A Declarative  Sentence  is  one  that  declares  some- 
thing ; as,  “ The  wind  blows.” 

What  is  an  Interrogative  Sentence  ? 

An  Interrogative  Sentence  is  one  that  asks  a ques- 
tion ; as,  “ Does  the  wind  blow  ? ” 

What  is  an  Imperative  Sentence  ? 

An  Imperative  Sentence  is  one  that  expresses  a 
command,  an  exhortation,  an  entreaty,  or  permission, 
and  contains  a verb  in  the  imperative  mood ; as,  “ Let 
the  wind  blow.” 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES. 


99 


What  is  an  Exclamatory  Sentence  ? 

An  Exclamatory  Sentence  is  one  that  exclaims 
something  ; as,  “ How  the  wind  blows ! 55 

With  what  do  imperative  sentences  often  commence  ? 

With  the  verb  let . 

With  what  do  exclamatory  sentences  often  commence  ? 

With  the  pronominal  adjective  what  or  the  adverb 
how  ; as,  “ What  a fearful  spectacle  ! ” u How  bright 
the  stars  are ! ” 

EXERCISE. 

Form  fire  declarative , five  interrogative , five  imperative, 
and  five  exclamatory  sentences , containing  the  following  ex- 
pressions in  order : — 1.  Fine  fruit.  2.  Facilities  for  travel- 
ling. 3.  A good  memory.  4.  Very  rapidly.  5.  Brick 
houses. — 6.  Have  you  studied?  7.  Who  are  disobliging. 
8.  Love  of  money.  9.  Dark  clouds.  10.  Travelling  so  far. 
— 11.  Let  us.  12.  In  peace.  13.  A habit  of  grumbling. 
14.  Wet  grass.  15.  Stale  bread. — 16.  How  beautiful.  17. 
What  a privilege.  18.  To  obey  one’s  parents.  19.  Pleasant 
dreams.  20.  A waste  of  time. 


LESSON  L XX. 

What  is  the  Grammatical  Subject  of  a sentence  ? 

The  Grammatical  Subject  is  the  leading  word,  de- 
noting that  about  which  something  is  said. 

By  what  is  the  grammatical  subject  sometimes  modified  ? 

By  words  that  limit  or  explain  its  meaning,  or  in- 
troduce some  additional  fact. 

Of  what  does  the  Logical  Subject  of  a sentence  consist  ? 

The  Logical  Subject  consists  of  the  grammatical 
subject  and  its  modifiers. 


100 


SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 


What  is  the  Predicate  of  a sentence  ? 

The  Predicate  of  a sentence  is  what  remains  after 
the  logical  subject  is  removed. 

Give  examples  of  these  definitions. 

“ Seven  metals  were  known  to  the  ancients.” 
Metals  is  the  grammatical  subject.  Seven  modifies 
it,  and  therefore  seven  metals  is  the  logical  sub- 
ject. Were  known  to  the  ancients  is  the  predicate. 

How  can  some  sentences  be  divided  ? 

Into  two  or  more  parts  of  equal  rank,  having  each 
a subject  and  predicate  of  its  own.  Such  parts  are 
called  Members. 

What  is  the  difference  between  Compound  and  Simple  Sen- 
tences ? 

Sentences  that  can  be  divided  into  two  or  more 
members,  are  called  Compound  Sentences.  Those  that 
cannot  be  so  divided,  are  called  Simple  Sentences. 

“ All  are  of  the  dust.”  This  sentence  expresses  one  thought, 
and  can  not  be  divided  into  two  or  more  members.  It  is  therefore 
simple.  If  we  join  to  it  another  member,  with  or  without  a con- 
junction, we  make  the  sentence  compound.  Thus : — “ All  are  of 
the  dust,  and  all  turn  to  dust  again.” 

A verb  is  sometimes  understood  in  the  predicate  of  one  or  more 
of  the  members  of  a compound  sentence ; as,  “ Honesty  is  the  best 
policy,  and  temperance  [is]  the  best  physic.” 

How  do  we  distinguish  compound  sentences,  when  their  mem- 
bers are  all  of  the  same  class  ? 

When  the  members  are  all  declarative,  we  call  the 
sentence  Compound  Declarative  ; when  all  interroga- 
tive, Compound  Interrogative ; when  all  imperative, 
Compound  Imperative  ; when  all  exclamatory,  Com- 
pound Exclamatory. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 


101 


What  do  we  call  a sentence  whose  members  are  of  different 
classes  ? 

A Compound  Sentence  with  Dissimilar  Members. 

“ Cast  thy  bread  upon  the  waters ; for  thou  shalt  find  it  after 
many  days.”  This  is  a compound  sentence  with  dissimilar  members. 
The  first  member  is  imperative ; the  second  is  declarative. 

Forms. — How  slow  yon  tiny  vessel  ploughs  the 
main  ! 

A simple  exclamatory  sentence.  The  grammatical  subject  is 
vessel.  The  logical  subject  is  yon  tiny  vessel.  The  predicate  is 
how  slow  ploughs  the  main . 

Be  just  and  fear  not . 

A compound  imperative  sentence.  The  first  member  is  be  just ; 
its  grammatical  and  logical  subject  is  thou  understood  ; its  predicate 
is  be  just.  The  second  member  is  and  fear  not,  connected  with  the 
first  member  by  the  conjunction  and ; its  grammatical  and  logical 
subject  is  thou  understood ; its  predicate  is  fear  not. 

Boast  not  thyself  of  to-morrow  ; for  thou  lenowest 
not  what  a day  may  bring  forth. 

A compound  sentence  with  dissimilar  members.  The  first  mem- 
ber, boast  not  thyself  of  to-morrow,  is  imperative.  Its  grammatical 
and  logical  subject  is  thou  understood ; its  predicate  is  boast  not 
thyself  of  to-morrow.  The  second  member,  for  thou  Jcnowest,  &c., 
is  declarative,  and  is  connected  with  the  first  member  by  the  con- 
junction for.  Its  grammatical  and  logical  subject  is  thou  \ its 
predicate  is  lenowest  not  what  a day  may  bring  forth. 

EXERCISE. 

Treat  the  following  sentences  according  to  the  above 
forms : — Great  oaks  from  little  acorns  grow. — A soft  answer 
turneth  away  wrath ; but  grievous  words  stir  up  anger. — 
Keep  thy  shop,  and  thy  shop  will  keep  thee. — How  precious 
are  the  passing  moments,  and  yet  how  few  appreciate  their 
value ! — Obey  thy  parents,  and  comply  with  all  their  wishes. 
— Uneasy  rests  the  head  that  wears  a crown. 


102 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 


LESSON  L X X I . 

What  sentences  alone  are  compound  ? 

Such  as  can  be  divided  into  two  or  more  members, 
each  having  its  own  subject  and  predicate. 

Does  the  introduction  of  a compound  subject  or  a compound 
predicate  necessarily  make  the  sentence  compound  ? 

It  does  not.  A sentence  may  contain  a compound 
subject  or  a compound  predicate,  and  yet  be  simple. 

A simple  sentence  may  contain  a compound  subject, — that  is, 
two  or  more  grammatical  subjects  connected  by  a conjunction  or 
not ; as,  “ Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man.” 

A simple  sentence  may  contain  a compound  predicate, — that  is, 
one  that  has  two  or  more  parts  of  equal  rank  ; as,  “ Time  destroys 
cities  and  overthrows  empires 

A simple  sentence  may  contain  both  a compound  subject  and 
a compound  predicate;  as,  “ Adam  and  Eve  | disobeyed  God  an. 
forfeited  Paradise 

How  many  principal  parts  has  every  sentence  ? 

Every  simple  sentence  and  every  member  of  a 
compound  sentence  has  at  least  two  principal  parts, 
— the  grammatical  subject  and  the  leading  verb. 

“The  summer  sun  burns  fiercely.”  The  gram- 
matical subject  sun  and  the  leading  verb  burns  are 
the  two  principal  parts. 

When  does  a third  principal  part  appear  ? 

1.  If  the  leading  verb  has  an  object,  this  object 
constitutes  a third  principal  part.  “The  summer  sun 
burns  up  the  grass.”  Here  there  are  three  principal 
parts, — sun,  burns , and  the  object  grass. 

2.  If  the  leading  verb  has  no  object,  but  is  fol- 
lowed by  a substantive  in  the  nominative  case,  this 
substantive,  called  the  Predicate  Nominative,  forms 
the  third  principal  part. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 


103 


cc  The  sun  is  the  great  source  of  heat.”  Here  are 
three  principal  parts, — sun , is,  and  the  predicate 
nominative  source . 

3.  If  the  leading  verb  has  no  object,  but  is  fol- 
lowed by  an  adjective  belonging  to  the  grammatical 
subject,  this  adjective,  called  the  Predicate  Adjective, 
forms  the  third  principal  part. 

“ The  summer  sun  is  hot.”  Here  are  three  princi- 
pal parts, — sun , is,  and  the  predicate  adjective  hot . 

Forms. — London  and  Paris  are  the  largest  cities 
of  Eur  ope. 

A simple  declarative  sentence.  The  principal  parts  are  the 
grammatical  subjects  London  and  Paris , the  leading  verb  are , and 
the  predicate  nominative  cities. 

Alexander  and  Caesar  had  an  untimely  end  • and 
Napoleon* s fate  was  not  much  better . 

A compound  declarative  sentence.  The  first  member  is  Alex- 
ander and  Gcesar  had  an  untimely  end.  The  second  member  is  and 
Napoleon's  fate  was  not  much  better. 

The  principal  parts  of  the  first  member  are  the  grammatical 
subjects  Alexander  and  Caesar,  the  leading  verb  had , and  its  object 
end.  The  principal  parts  of  the  second  member  are  the  grammati- 
cal subject  fate , the  leading  verb  was , and  the  predicate  adjective 
better. 

EXERCISE. 

Treat  the  following  sentences  according  to  the  above 
forms: — Worth  makes  the  man. — Homer,  Virgil,  and  Mil- 
ton,  are  the  three  great  epic  poets. — From  how  many  evils 
do  temperance  and  self-restraint  save  us! — To  die  for  one’s 
country  is  glorious. — Do  not  patience  and  perseverance 
always  triumph? — Love  produces  love,  and  hate  engenders 
hate.— Be  cautious;  avoid  every  appearance  of  evil. 


104 


CLAUSES. 


LESSON  L X X II. 

By  what  may  the  principal  parts  of  a sentence  be  modified  ? 

By  single  words,  adjuncts,  and  clauses. 

What  is  an  Adjunct  ? (See  page  89.)  What  is  a Clause  ? 

A Clause  is  a subdivision  of  a sentence  containing 
a verb,  but  not  expressing  a complete  thought. 

Name  the  seven  principal  kinds  of  clauses. 

Substantive,  Relative,  Participial,  Adverbial,  Causal, 
Comparative,  and  Hypothetical  Clauses. 

What  is  a Substantive  Clause  ? 

A Substantive  Clause  is  one  that  performs  the  part 
of  a noun ; as,  “ The  fact  that  we  must  all  die  should 
be  constantly  kept  in  mind.” 

What  is  a Kelative  Clause  ? 

A Eelative  Clause  is  one  that  contains  a relative 
pronoun  expressed  or  understood ; as,  “ Moses  is  the 
meekest  man  [that]  we  read  of  in  Scripture” 

What  is  a Participial  Clause  ? 

A Participial  Clause  is  one  that  contains  a parti- 
ciple ; as,  “ Figures,  when  well  chosen,  embellish  dis- 
course.” 

What  is  an  Adverbial  Clause  ? 

An  Adverbial  Clause  is  one  that  performs  the  part 
of  an  adverb,  generally  expressing  time,  place,  or 
manner ; as,  “ When  Columbus  discovered  America, 
it  was  inhabited  by  Indians.” 

What  is  a Causal  Clause  ? 

A Causal  Clause  is  one  that  expresses  the  purpose 
or  end  for  which  anything  is  or  is  done  ; “ Boys  go 
to  school,  to  study  and  improve  their  minds” 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 


105 


What  is  a Comparative  Clause  ? 

A Comparative  Clause  is  one  that  contains  as  or 
than  followed  by  the  latter  of  two  terms  compared  ; 
as,  “ Virtue  is  as  rare  as  it  is  admirable .” 

What  is  a Hypothetical  Clause  ? 

A Hypothetical  Clause  is  one  that  expresses  a sup- 
position or  something  conceived  as  possible  ; as,  “ If 
I were  you , I would  try.” 

What  is  a Vocative  Expression  ? 

A Vocative  Expression  is  a substantive  used  inde- 
pendently, with  its  modifiers,  thrown  into  a sentence 
like  an  interjection,  without  modifying  any  particular 
word ; as,  “ Spirit  of  peace,  still  hover  over  us  ! ” 

Forms. — '‘Tis  not  the  fairest  form  that  holds  the 
purest  soul. 

A simple  declarative  sentence.  The  principal  parts  are  the 
grammatical  subject  it,  the  leading  verb  is,  and  the  predicate  nomi- 
native form.  The  leading  verb  is  is  modified  by  the  adverb  not. 

The  predicate  nominative  form  is  modified  by  the  article  the , 
the  adjective  fairest,  and  the  relative  clause  that  holds  the  purest 
soul.  The  principal  parts  of  this  clause  are  the  grammatical  subject 
that,  the  leading  verb  holds,  and  its  object  soul,  which  is  modified 
by  the  article  the  and  the  adjective  purest. 

Where  can  you  go,  0 doubter,  to  find  comfort  ? 

A simple  interrogative  sentence.  The  principal  parts  are  the 
grammatical  subject  you  and  the  leading  verb  can  go. 

The  leading  verb  can  go  is  modified  by  the  adverb  where  and  the 
causal  clause  to  find  comfort , consisting  of  the  infinitive  to  find  and 
its  object  comfort.  0 doubter  is  a vocative  expression. 

We  know  that  the  eloquence  of  Demosthenes  was 
more  impassioned  than  that  of  Cicero . 

A simple  declarative  sentence.  The  principal  parts  are  the 
grammatical  subject  we  and  the  leading  verb  know . 


100 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 


The  leading  verb  know  is  modified  by  the  substantive  clause  that 
the  eloquence , &c.,  connected  with  it  by  the  conjunction  that.  The 
principal  parts  of  this  clause  are  the  grammatical  subject  eloquence , 
the  leading  verb  was,  and  the  predicate  adjective  impassioned. 

The  grammatical  subject  eloquence  is  modified  by  the  article  the 
and  the  adjunct  of  Demosthenes. 

The  predicate  adjective  impassioned  is  modified  by  the  adverb 
more  ; and  more  is  itself  modified  by  the  comparative  clause  than 
that  of  Cicero,  connected  with  it  by  the  conjunction  than.  The 
principal  parts  of  this  comparative  clause  are  the  grammatical  sub- 
ject that  (modified  by  the  adjunct  of  Cicero),  and  the  leading  verb 
was  understood. 

EXERCISE. 

Treat  the  following  sentences  according  to  the  dboxe 
forms : — Who  shall  decide  when  doctors  disagree  ? — Csesar, 
whose  bravery  has  never  been  questioned,  refused  a challenge 
from  Mark  Antony. — When  you  have  done  wrong,  my 
children,  be  not  afraid  to  admit  it. — To  do  good  to  the  living 
is  better  than  to  eulogize  the  dead. — Thousands  at  once 
flocked  to  California,  to  try  their  fortunes  in  that  favored 
land. — How  few  who  merit  the  world’s  applause,  receive  it ! 


LESSON  LX  X III. 

What  is  meant  by  the  Base  of  a sentence  ? 

The  Base  of  a sentence  is  the  part  that  expresses 
the  leading  idea.  44  Who  shall  decide  when  doctors 
disagree  ? ” Who  shall  decide  is  the  base. 

What  is  meant  by  a Quotation,  or  Quoted  Sentence  ? 

A word  or  passage  taken,  or  represented  as  taken, 
from  some  writer  or  speaker. 

What  is  meant  by  Analyzing  a sentence  ? 

Resolving  it  into  its  simple  parts. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 


107 


In  analyzing  a sentence,  what  must  be  done  ? 

In  analyzing  a sentence,  state  its  class ; select  its 
principal  parts;  tell  by  what  words,  adjuncts,  or 
clauses  each  is  modified,  and  by  what  these  modifiers 
are  themselves  modified,  resolving  adjuncts  into  the 
words  that  compose  them,  and  clauses  into  their  prin- 
cipal parts  and  modifiers.  If  the  sentence  is  com- 
pound, treat  each  member  in  turn  as  just  described. 

Fokms  of  analysis. — Intense  cold  produces  a de- 
sire for  sleep , which,  if  indulged  in,  results  in  death . 

A simple  declarative  sentence.  The  principal  parts  are  the  gram- 
matical subject  cold , the  leading  verb  produces , and  the  object  desire.. 

The  grammatical  subject  cold  is  modified  by  the  adjective 
intense. 

The  object  desire  is  modified  by  the  article  a and  the  adjunct 
for  sleep , consisting  of  the  preposition  for  and  its  object  sleep.  The 
object  sleep  is  modified  by  the  relative  clause  ivhich , if  indulged  in,, 
results  in  death. 

The  principal  parts  of  this  clause  are  the  grammatical  subject 
which  and  the  leading  verb  results.  The  subject  which  is  modified 
by  the  hypothetical  clause  if  indulged  in,  consisting  of  the  conjunc- 
tion if  and  the  participle  indulged  (modified  by  the  adverb  in).. 
The  leading  verb  results  is  modified  by  the  adjunct  in  death,  con- 
sisting of  the  preposition  in  and  its  object  death. 

If  travellers  tell  the  truth,  woman  is  always  hu- 
mane ; even  in  savage  lands  she  is  gentle  and  hind 
to  those  who  need  her  aid. 

A compound  declarative  sentence.  The  first  member  is  if 
travellers  tell  the  truth,  woman  is  always  humane.  The  second 
member  is  even  in  savage  lands  she  is  gentle  and  kind  to  those  who 
need  her  aid. 

The  principal  parts  of  the  first  member  are  the  grammatical 
subject  woman,  the  leading  verb  is  (modified  by  the  adverb  always),, 
and  the  predicate  adjective  humane . 


108 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 


The  base  of  the  first  member  is  modified  by  the  hypothetical 
clause  if  travellers  tell  the  truth.  The  principal  parts  of  this  clause 
are  the  grammatical  subject  travellers , the  leading  verb  tell , and  the 
object  truth , modified  by  the  article  the. 

The  principal  parts  of  the  second  member  are  the  grammatical 
subject  she , the  leading  verb  is)  and  the  predicate  adjectives  gentle 
and  kind.  The  predicate  adjectives  are  modified  by  the  adjunct 
to  those,  consisting  of  the  preposition  to  and  its  object  those , which 
is  itself  modified  by  the  relative  clause  who  need  her  aid.  The 
principal  parts  of  this  clause  are  the  grammatical  subject  who,  the 
leading  verb  need,  and  the  object  aid,  which  is  modified  by  the 
possessive  her. 

The  base  of  the  second  member  is  modified  by  the  adjunct  in 
savage  lands,  consisting  of  the  preposition  in  and  its  object  lands, 
which  is  modified  by  the  adjective  savage  ; and  this  adjunct  is  itself 
modified  by  the  adverb  even. 

JBion  used  to  say , “ Know  thyself? 

A simple  declarative  sentence.  The  principal  parts  are  the 
grammatical  subject  Bion  and  the  leading  verb  used. 

The  leading  verb  used  is  modified  by  the  infinitive  to  say,  which 
is  itself  modified  by  the  quoted  sentence  know  thyself 

The  quoted  sentence  know  thyself  is  simple  imperative.  Its 
principal  parts  are  the  grammatical  subject  thou  understood,  the 
leading  verb  know,  and  the  object  thyself. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze,  according  to  the  above  forms,  the  sentences  in  the 
Exercise  under  Lesson  LXX.,  also  the  following  : — Let  justice 
he  done,  though  the  sky  fall. — The  wicked  flee  when  no 
man  pursueth  ; but  the  righteous  are  bold  as  a lion. — Were 
it  not  for  the  numerous  enemies  that  are  constantly  destroy- 
ing them,  serpents  would  prove  a serious  annoyance  to  man. 
— “ O Autumn,”  writes  Bryant,  “ why  so  soon  depart  the 
hues  that  make  thy  forests  glorious  ? ” [Here  Bryant  is 
the  grammatical  subject,  and  writes  the  leading  verb.] 


CORRECTION  OF  FALSE  SYNTAX. 


109 


LESSON  LXXIV. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Specimens  of  the  most  common  grammatical  errors 
are  now  presented  for  correction.  Give  the  reasons 
for  each  alteration,  according  to  the  models.  After 
correcting  the  sentences,  analyze  and  parse  them. 
Divide  into  lessons  of  convenient  length. 

1.  Do  not  put  a substantive  that  is  the  subject  of 
a verb  or  is  used  independently,  in  the  objective  case. 

Model. — Can  you  run  faster  than  me  ? Corrected : Can  you 
run  faster  than  I?  Me  must  be  changed  to  /,  the  nominative  case, 
because  it  is  the  subject  of  can  run  understood. 

Correct : — Him  and  me  are  to  start  to-morrow. — Who  dropped 
that  book  ? Not  me,  but  her. — Whom  do  you  think  has  arrived  ? — 
Them  that  are  industrious  generally  succeed. — Few  have  been  so 
fortunate  as  us? — Jane  is  taller  than  him  or  me. — Them  that  have 
ears  to  hear,  let  them  hear. — We  have  no  fears,  thee  being  our 
guide. — Who  would  have  thought  of  its  being  him  ? 

2.  Put  a modifying  substantive  that  implies  pos- 
session, origin,  or  fitness,  in  the  possessive  case.  See 
that  the  apostrophe  is  properly  used  (as  shown  on 
page  27). 

Model. — Charles’  reign;  mens’  lives.  Corrected:  Charles’s 
reign ; men’s  lives. 

Correct : — St.  Josephs  Church  ; womens’  shoes ; Musaeus’ 
poems;  four  months  residence;  misses  dresses;  Rufus’  father; 
All  Saints  Church  ; three  hours  journey;  the  marchioness  jewels; 
Tacitus’  works;  the  childrens’  books. — Who’s  hat  is  that?  It  is 
neither  his’n,  her’n,  nor  yourn. 

3.  When  there  are  several  modifying  substantives, 
they  are  all  in  the  possessive  case.  If  they  modify 
different  nouns,  give  each  the  sign  of  the  possessive. 

10 


110 


CORRECTION  OF 


But,  if  they  modify  the  same  noun,  give  it  to  the 
last  only. 

Model. — I have  bought  Andrews’  and  Stoddard’s  Latin  Gram- 
mar, and  Worcester  and  Webster’s  Dictionary.  Corrected  : I have 
bought  Andrews  and  Stoddard’s  Latin  Grammar,  and  Worcester's 
and  Webster’s  Dictionary.  The  possessive  sign  must  be  omitted 
after  Andrews\  because  but  one  grammar  is  referred  to;  it  must  be 
annexed  to  Worcester , because  two  dictionaries  are  referred  to. 

Correct : — Henry  and  George’s  farm  are  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
river. — What  was  the  name  of  Adam’s  and  Eve’s  youngest  son  ? — 
What  is  the  distance  between  White  and  Lee’s  store  ? 

4.  Put  the  object  of  a verb  or  preposition  in  the 
objective  case. 

Model. — Who  can  I trust?  Corrected:  Whom  can  I trust? 
Who  must  be  changed  to  whom)  the  objective  case,  because  it  is 
the  object  of  the  verb  can  trust. 

Correct : — He  who  the  world  admires  most  is  not  always  the  most 
worthy  of  admiration. — He  sat  behind  you  and  I. — Who  did  Mr. 
Ray  leave  his  property  to  ? — Tell  whoever  you  send  to  be  careful. — 
Who  did  you  say  that  you  saw  ? — Between  you  and  I,  I suspect 
your  friend. — How  many  Pharaoh’s  have  you  read  of? 

5.  Do  not  introduce  a preposition  to  govern  the 
object  of  a transitive  verb. 

Model. — Consider  of  my  offer.  Corrected:  Consider  my  offer. 
Consider  being  a transitive  verb,  the  preposition  must  be  omitted. 

Correct : — I do  not  wish  for  any  more. — Do  you  recollect  of 
walking  down  Broadway  last  week  ? — Different  men  pursue  after 
different  objects. — She  will  not  allow  of  any  interference. — His  ser- 
vants we  are,  to  whom  we  obey. — There  are  many  good  men  at 
whom  the  world  ridicule. — Do  not  doubt  of  my  desire  to  do  you  good. 

6.  In  using  the  passive  of  such  verbs  as  offer,  allow , 
&c.,  be  sure  to  make  the  right  substantive  the  subject. 

Model. — Thrice  was  Caesar  offered  the  crown.  Corrected: 
Thrice  was  the  crown  offered  Caesar.  Crown , being  the  thing  offered, 
should  be  made  the  subject. 


FALSE  SYNTAX. 


Ill 


Correct : — He  was  tendered  a free  passage. — We  are  sometimes 
told  strange  stories. — The  clerk  is  allowed  a handsome  salary. — 
Arnold  was  promised  £10,000  and  the  rank  of  brigadier-general. — 
They  have  been  granted  leave  of  absence. 

7.  See  that  a pronoun  in  apposition  with  a noun  is 
put  in  the  same  case  as  that  noun. 

See  that  a substantive  following  a verb  without  an 
object  is  put  in  the  same  case  as  the  substantive 
before  the  verb. 

Model. — We  went  to  see  Florence  Nightingale,  she  who  did  so 
much  good  in  the  Crimea.  Corrected:  We  went  to  see  Florence 
Nightingale,  her  who  did  so  much  good  in  the  Crimea.  She  must 
be  changed  to  her , to  be  in  the  objective  case,  because  it  is  in  ap- 
position with  the  objective  Florence  Nightingale . 

Correct : — There  are  few  bolder  travellers  than  Livingstone,  him 
who  explored  the  interior  of  Africa. — If  I were  her,  I would  act 
with  more  dignity. — Have  you  read  the  life  of  Grace  Darling,  she 
who  saved  so  many  ship-wrecked  persons  ? — We  feared  it  was  him. 
— Did  you  suppose  it  to  be  she  ? — None  of  us  could  guess  whom 
he  would  turn  out  to  be. — It  was  my  brother  you  saw,  not  me. 

8.  See  that  a pronoun  agrees  in  number  and  gender 
with  the  substantive  for  which  it  stands. 

Model. — As  you  have  broken  the  tongs,  you  must  get  it  mended. 
Corrected : As  you  have  broken  the  tongs,  you  must  get  them 
mended.  It  must  be  changed  to  them , the  plural  number,  because 
tongs,  the  substantive  for  which  it  stands,  is  plural. 

Correct : — Many  a young  man  forgets  the  lessons  that  their 
mother  taught  them. — Every  one  should  be  considered  innocent  till 
they  are  proved  guilty. — That  heifer  seems  to  have  lost  his  way. — 
Nobody  knows  what  may  befall  them  to-morrow. — On  that  occasion 
each  singer  did  their  best. — I have  mislaid  my  spectacles  ; help  me 
find  it. — What  do  you  do  with  your  ashes  ? I sell  it. 

9.  See  that  a verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person 
and  number. 

Model. — The  distance  of  the  fixed  stars  are  incredible.  Cor - 


112 


CORRECTION  OF 


reded:  The  distance  of  the  fixed  stars  is  incredible.  Are  must  be 
changed  to  is,  to  agree  with  its  subject  distance , in  the  third,  singular. 

Correct : — What  are  the  news  ? — Ashes  mixed  with  salt  makes 
a strong  cement  for  iron  pipes. — Was  you  not  present  at  the  acci- 
dent ? — Well,  says  I to  myself,  she  dare  not  touch  on  that  subject. 
— Captain  H.,  with  his  whole  company,  have  arrived. — Too  much 
study  on  abstract  subjects  fatigue  the  mind. — Three  days’  journey 
on  such  roads  are  enough  to  tire  any  one. — Every  teacher  have 
their  own  notions  on  grammar. — He  may  say  what  he  choose. — 
Each  of  our  public  officers  have  their  favorites. — What  is  oats 
selling  for  ? — Codrus  is  one  of  the  noblest  kings  that  is  mentioned 
in  history. — The  phenomena  of  the  atmosphere  is  well  worthy  of 
attention. — Many  a merchant  have  failed  to  succeed  from  a want 
of  punctuality. 

10.  Substantives  connected  by  and  expressed  or 
understood  are  said  to  be  taken  together . 

A pronoun  or  verb  agreeing  with  two  or  more 
singular  substantives  taken  together,  must  be  put  in 
the  plural. 

Model. — Milton’s  and  Byron’s  poetry  is  entirely  different  in  its 
style.  Corrected : Milton’s  and  Byron’s  poetry  are  entirely  different 
in  their  style.  Is  must  be  changed  to  are,  and  its  to  their,  to  agree 
in  the  plural  with  poetry  understood  (after  Milton's)  and  poetry  ex- 
pressed, two  singular  substantives  taken  together. 

Correct : — Of  what  use  is  learning  and  eloquence,  if  it  is  never 
turned  to  practical  account  ? — Indifference,  contempt,  persecution, 
has  too  often  been  the  fate  of  genius. — What  advantage  is  rank 
and  wealth  to  such  a character  ? — To  deny  one’s  self  and  to  re- 
lieve others  is  enjoined  on  every  Christian. — Virgil’s  “and  Homer’s 
epic  has  ever  commanded  for  itself  the  admiration  of  the  world. — 
Hope  and  the  consciousness  of  integrity  has  ceased  to  comfort  me. 

11.  If  the  substantives  connected  by  and  represent 
the  same  person  or  thing,  put  the  verb  and  pronoun 
agreeing  with  them  in  the  singular ; as,  “ The  physi- 
cian and  surgeon  on  the  corner  has  closed  his  office.” 


FALSE  SYNTAX. 


113 


Correct : — Where  is  your  friend  and  cousin  ? I have  not  seen 
them  to-day. — Hope,  and  hope  alone,  are  my  support. — Religion, 
and  nothing  but  religion,  are  able  to  console  us. 

12.  Substantives  are  taken  separately , 1.  When 
preceded  by  each , every , or  no,  whether  connected  by 
and  or  not.  2.  When  connected  by  and  not,  if  not , 
as  well  as,  but , or,  or  nor . 

A pronoun  or  verb  agreeing  with  two  or  more 
singular  substantives  taken  separately,  must  be  put  in 
the  singular. 

Model. — James,  as  well  as  his  brother,  have  injured  themselves 
by  pursuing  this  course.  Corrected : James,  as  well  as  his  brother, 
has  injured  himself  by  pursuing  this  course.  Have  injured  must 
be  changed  to  has  injured , and  themselves  to  himself  \ to  agree  in 
the  singular  with  James  and  brother  taken  separately. 

Correct : — Neither  lead  nor  iron  are  so  heavy  as  gold. — Not 
only  France,  but  England,  have  committed  themselves  to  this 
policy. — Caesar,  as  well  as  Pompey,  met  their  death  at  the  assassin’s 
hands. — Either  the  mate  or  the  captain  have  lost  their  reckoning. 
— It  was  Saul,  and  not  Jonathan,  that  killed  themselves. — Each 
day  and  each  hour  have  their  duties. — Every  man,  every  child,  are 
able  to  do  some  good  to  their  fellow  creatures. — No  word,  no  sigh, 
were  heard. — Simplicity,  or  rather  folly,  are  stamped  on  his  face. 

13.  If  one  of  the  substantives  connected  by  or  or 
nor  is  plural,  the  verb  or  pronoun  must  be  plural ; as, 
“ Neither  England  nor  the  French  are  satisfied.” 

Correct : — Neither  glory  nor  riches  can  make  its  possessor 
happy. — Either  my  eyes  or  this  type  is  very  bad. — Neither  knife 
nor  scissors  is  in  its  place. — Either  the  horse  or  the  cattle  has  been 
in  the  garden. 

14.  Use  that  as  a relative,  not  who  or  which, 

1.  When  both  persons  and  things  are  referred  to; 
as,  “Look  at  the  artists  and  masterpieces  that  ancient 
Greece  produced.” 


114 


CORRECTION  OF 


2.  When  who  is  the  antecedent ; as,  u Who  that 
hates  his  brother  can  love  God  ? ” 

3.  After  a superlative ; as,  “ Hannibal  was  the 
deadliest  enemy  that  Rome  ever  had.” 

4.  After  same , all,  and  the  adjectives  very  and  no  / 
as,  “ He  is  the  same  that  he  always  was.” 

Correct : — All  the  wagons  and  drivers  which  were  on  the  road, 
were  captured. — Tell  was  one  of  the  purest  patriots  whom  we  read 
of  in  history. — All  which  glitters,  is  not  gold. — Who  who  has  a 
feeling  heart,  can  listen  to  this  story  unmoved  ? — The  least  which 
we  have  a right  to  expect,  is  your  sympathy. — No  prince  who 
breathes,  is  happier  than  I. 

15.  Place  the  relative  with  its  clause  immediately 
after  its  antecedent ; as,  “ Those  who  break  the  law 
deserve  punishment  ” — not , “ Those  deserve  punish- 
ment who  break  the  law.” 

Correct: — The  birds  are  not  always  the  sweetest  singers,  that 
have  the  gayest  plumage. — Those  can  not  govern  others,  who  can 
not  govern  themselves. — Many  are  careless  in  selecting  their  friends, 
who  use  great  caution  in  selecting  their  horses. — Speeches  are  not 
much  liked  by  the  people,  that  are  full  of  learned  allusions. 

16.  Use  this  and  that  writh  singular  nouns  only, 
these  and  those  only  with  plurals.  Never  say  this  here 
or  these  ’ ere , that  there  or  those  'ere. 

Correct : — These  sort  of  people  are  dangerous  acquaintances. — 
Whose  is  this  here  scissors  ? — Those  kind  of  shoes  are  good  enough. 
— That  ’ere  fence  must  come  down. — Empty  out  that  suds. — What 
are  these  news  I hear  ? 

17.  Comparatives  and  superlatives  must  not  be 
further  compared ; nor  should  the  adverbs  more  and 
most  be  used  with  them. 

Correct : — The  fartherest  route  ; a more  superior  position ; in  a 
worser  condition ; the  most  straitest  sect  of  our  religion ; a more 
clearer  style  ; much  more  better  off. 


FALSE  SYNTAX. 


115 


18.  Do  not  compare  adjectives  whose  meaning 
precludes  the  idea  of  comparison,  or  use  with  them 
more,  most,  less,  least,  so,  or  any  adverb  of  degree. 

Correct : — The  chiefest  beauty  ; a delusion  so  universal ; the 
least  perfect  of  the  photographs ; a more  preferable  office ; the 
truest  assertions ; so  infinite  a number ; a more  complete  course ; 
the  freest  institutions ; the  supremest  folly. 

19.  In  comparing  two  objects,  use  the  comparative 
degree;  in  comparing  more  than  two  at  once,  the 
superlative. 

Model. — Which  is  the  smartest  of  the  two  brothers?  Cor - 
reded : Which  is  the  smarter  of  the  two  brothers  ? Smartest  must 
be  changed  to  smarter , the  comparative  degree,  because  only  two 
objects  are  compared. 

Correct : — Which  is  the  greatest,  a fathom  or  a cubit  ? — Flax, 
wool,  and  cotton,  are  all  important  staples, — particularly  the  latter. 
— George  is  the  youngest  of  my  two  brothers. — Which  looks  to  you 
the  largest,  the  sun  or  the  full  moon  ? 

20.  After  the  comparative  degree,  use  other  with 
the  latter  of  the  terms  compared,  if  it  includes  the 
former,  and  only  then . 

After  the  superlative,  use  neither  other  nor  any 
with  the  latter  term. 

Thus  : — “ The  Amazon  is  longer  than  any  other  river,”  because 
the  Amazon  is  a river.  But,  “ The  Amazon  is  longer  than  any 
river  in  Europe  ; ” not  any  other  river , because  the  Amazon  is  not 
a river  of  Europe.  So,  after  the  superlative : “ The  Amazon  is  the 
longest  of  all  rivers ; ” not  of  all  other  rivers , or  of  any  river . 

Correct : — Mercury  is  nearer  to  the  sun  than  any  of  the  planets. 
— Samson  was  the  strongest  of  any  man  we  have  ever  heard  of. — 
London  is  the  largest  of  any  city  in  Europe. — Portions  of  the  Bible 
are  older  than  any  writings  extant. — The  whale  is  the  largest  of  any 
other  fish. — Railroads  develop  a country  more  rapidly  than  any 
internal  improvements. 


116 


CORRECTION  OF 


21.  Do  not  use  can , which  implies  ability,  for  may •, 
implying  permission. 

Do  not  use  am  for  have  as  the  auxiliary  of  the 
perfect  indicative,  or  was  for  had  in  the  pluperfect. 

Avoid  corrupt  forms  of  the  verb : such  as,  had  have, 
for  had,  in  the  pluperfect;  hadn't  ought,  for  ought 
not ; had  as  lief,  had  rather,  for  would  as  lief  would 
rather  ; I'm  a mind,  for  I have  a mind ; arn't  or 
aint,  for  are  not ; moughtn't,  for  might  not , &c. 

Correct : — I will  let  you  go ; you  can  start  next  week. — Can  I 
sit  down  ? — Those  happy  days  are  gone. — The  Irish  are  sprung  from 
the  old  Celtic  stock. — The  phantom  was  vanished. — They  are 
already  arrived. — I’m  a mind  to  go ; but  after  all  I had  as  lief  re- 
main.— You  hadn’t  ought  to  eat  unripe  fruit. — Had  Bliicher  have 
been  a little  later,  Napoleon  might  have  gained  the  battle  of  Water- 
loo.— Arn’t  you  mistaken  ? 

22.  The  preposition  for  must  not  be  used  immedi- 
ately before  the  infinitive.  “ He  is  trying  hard  for 
to  enter  college.”  Correct  by  omitting  for. 

Correct : — Cicero  sent  his  son  to  Athens,  for  to  finish  his  educa- 
tion.— Many  have  risked  their  lives,  for  to  make  discoveries. — 
Strive  for  to  cultivate  a contented  disposition  ; for  to  possess  this  is 
better  than  to  roll  in  wealth. 

23.  The  sign  to  must  not  be  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  infinitive  by  an  adverb.  “To  faithfully 
represent  this  scene  is  impossible.”  Say  faithfully  to 
represent  this  scene,  or  to  represent  this  scene  faithfully . 

Correct : — How  pleasant  it  is  to  quietly  sit  by  some  river’s  bank ! 
— Try  to  always  deserve  the  esteem  of  your  teachers. — To  hastily 
read  is  generally  to  quite  as  hastily  forget. 

24.  Omit  to,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  after  the 
verbs  hear,  make,  and  hid  (meaning  order),  in  the 
active  voice ; let , in  both  voices ; dare  (meaning  ven- 


FALSE  SYNTAX. 


117 


ture ),  when  not  in  the  infinitive,  participles,  or  com- 
pound tenses ; and  see  and  feel,  when  transitive,  in 
the  active  voice.  “Hear  it  [to]  thunder.”  “Bid 
them  sit  down.” 

Correct: — Washington  soon  made  the  enemy  to  evacuate  Bos- 
ton.— He  bids  all  to  come  and  to  drink  freely  of  the  water  of  life. 
— We  are  bid  relieve  the  unfortunate. — Bernadotte  durst  not  to 
risk  a battle. — Just  see  those  boys  to  run. — Those  boys  were  seen 
run  down  the  hill. — Do  you  feel  the  lancet  to  prick  you  ? 

25.  Do  not  use  the  preposition  of  between  the 
participle  of  a transitive  verb  and  its  object.  Say 
by  erecting  statues , not  by  erecting  of  statues. 

When  the , an  or  a , this,  or  that,  is  introduced 
before  a participle,  the  latter  becomes  a noun  and  is 
followed  by  of;  as,  this  erecting  of  statues. 

Correct : — Disciplining  of  raw  recruits  and  making  of  good  sol- 
diers out  of  them  are  no  easy  tasks. — The  committing  an  error  is 
no  excuse  for  defending  of  it. — What  sense  is  there  in  this  follow- 
ing every  absurd  fashion  ? — Adam  was  not  punished  for  the  eating 
an  apple,  but  for  disobeying  of  his  Maker. — There  are  other  forms 
of  charity  besides  the  mere  giving  money. 

26.  See  that  a substantive  modifying  a participle 
is  in  the  possessive  case ; as,  “ Who  first  conceived 
the  idea  of  the  moon's  [not  moon]  being  inhabited  ? ” 

Correct : — Who  ever  heard  of  a fat  man  plotting  treason  ? — 
Many  savage  nations  have  a tradition  of  the  world  having  been 
overflowed  by  a deluge. — The  idea  of  England  joining  such  a league 
is  preposterous. — There  is  certainly  more  danger  of  a child  studying 
too  little  than  too  much. 

27.  In  expressing  a negation,  do  not  use  two  nega- 

tives in  the  same  clause  or  member ; as,  “ I did  not 
do  nothing .”  Change  or  omit  one  of  the  negatives  : 

“I  did  not  do  anything ,”  or  “I  did  nothing.” 


118 


FALSE  SYNTAX. 


Correct : — We  never  saw  nothing  like  this. — Don’t  say  nothing 
to  no  one. — French  is  not  so  melodious  nor  majestic  a language  as 
Spanish. — Can  you  not  obtain  permission  in  no  way  ? — Don’t  never 
put  off  till  to-morrow  what  can  be  done  to-day. 

28.  Certain  words  must  be  followed  by  certain 
prepositions.  Thus : — Accuse  of;  adapted  to;  arrive 
at  or  in;  bestow  on;  confide,  trust  in;  different 
from;  dislike  to;  followed  by;  rid  of;  accom- 
panied, attended  by  a living  object,  with  an  inani- 
mate object. 

Correct : — Socrates  was  accused  with  corrupting  the  youth. — 
Be  careful  to  whom  you  bestow  your  favors. — We  know  on  whom 
we  have  trusted. — A dog’s-ear  is  quite  different  to  a dog’s  ear. — Try 
to  rid  yourselves  from  flatterers. — To  what  place  did  St.  Paul  next 
arrive  ? — The  king  was  attended  with  a large  retinue. — Intemperance 
is  attended  by  fearful  consequences. — It  is  a fine  edition,  accom- 
panied by  illustrations. — Crime  is  generally  followed  with  remorse. 
— Canute  was  attended  with  his  courtiers. 


LESSON  LXXV. 

RULES  FOR  CAPITAL  LETTERS. 

Begin  with  a capital, 

I.  Every  sentence  and  every  line  of  poetry. 

II.  Proper  nouns,  proper  adjectives,  and  titles  of 
office  and  honor ; as,  Eve,  Italian,  General  Scott. 

III.  Common  nouns  personified  in  a lively  manner ; 
as,  “ Then  War  waves  his  banner.” 

IV.  Appellations  of  the  Deity,  and  the  personal 
pronouns  Thou  and  He  standing  for  His  name. 

V.  The  first  word  of  a quoted  sentence,  not  intro- 
duced by  that  or  any  other  conjunction  \ as,  Thomson 
says,  “ Success  makes  villains  honest.” 


PUNCTUATION. 


119 


VI.  Every  noun,  adjective,  and  verb  in  the  titles 
of  books  and  headings  of  chapters. 

VII.  Words  that  denote  the  leading  subjects  of 
chapters,  articles,  or  paragraphs. 

VIII.  The  pronoun  I and  the  interjection  0 . 

IX.  Words  denoting  great  events  or  eras,  noted 
written  instruments,  and  extraordinary  physical  phe- 
nomena ; as,  the  Creation,  the  Aurora  Borealis. 

X.  Letters  standing  for  words ; as,  JP.  (?. 


LESSON  L X X VI. 

PUNCTUATION. 


Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  language 
by  points,  in  order  that  the  meaning  may  be  readily 
understood. 

The  Punctuation-points  are  as  follows : — 


Period,  . Semicolon,  ; 

Interrogation-point,  ? Comma,  , 

Exclamation-point,  ! Dash,  — 

Colon,  : Parentheses,  ( ) 

Brackets,  [ ] 

A period  must  be  placed  after  every  declarative  and  im- 
perative sentence,  and  every  abbreviated  word ; as,  “ X.  Y. 
stands  for  Xew  York.” 


An  interrogation-point  must  be  placed  after  every  inter- 
rogative sentence,  member,  and  clause ; also,  after  the  inter- 
jections eh  and  hey  ; as,  “ Has  air  weight  ? ” 

An  exclamation-point  must  be  placed  after  every  ex- 
clamatory sentence,  member,  clause,  and  expression ; also, 
after  every  interjection  but  0 , eA,  hey  ; as,  “ Alas ! how  sad ! ” 
The  colon,  semicolon,  and  comma,  are  used  between 


120 


PUNCTUATION. 


parts  of  sentences,  and  denote  different  degrees  of  separa- 
tion,— the  colon  the  greatest,  the  comma  the  least. 

A colon  is  placed  before  an  enumeration  of  particulars 
introduced  by  first , secondly , &c. ; also,  before  a quotation 
referred  to  by  the  words  thus , these , following , as  follows. 

A semicolon  is  generally  placed  between  the  members 
of  compound  sentences  unless  very  short,  before  an  enumera- 
tion of  particulars  when  the  names  of  the  objects  merely 
are  given,  and  before  as  introducing  an  example. 

A comma  sets  off  adjuncts  and  clauses  not  essential  to 
the  meaning  of  the  sentence,  when  introduced  between  parts 
that  are  closely  connected.  It  is  also  used  to  set  off  a noun 
in  apposition  modified  by  an  adjunct  or  adjective. 

A comma  is  also  placed  between  very  short  members 
of  compound  sentences ; also,  after  a logical  subject  ending 
with  a verb,  or  consisting  of  parts  which  are  separated  by 
the  comma ; also,  before  or  introducing  an  equivalent. 

A comma  is  also  placed  after  each  word  in  a series  of 
more  than  two  that  are  the  same  part  of  speech ; or  after 
each  pair,  if  the  words  are  taken  in  pairs. 

The  dash  is  used  to  denote  a break  in  the  construction, 
a transition  in  the  sentiment,  a sudden  interruption,  hesita- 
tion, or  an  abrupt  repetition. 

Parentheses  are  used  to  enclose  words  that  explain  or 
modify  the  main  proposition,  when  introduced  between  parts 
that  are  closely  connected. 

Brackets  are  used  chiefly  in  quoted  passages,  to  enclose 
corrections,  observations,  or  words  improperly  omitted. 

The  Apostrophe  ( ’ ) denotes  the  possessive  case  of  nouns, 
or  the  omission  of  a letter  or  letters ; as,  men's , o'er. 

The- Hyphen  ( - ) connects  the  parts  of  a compound  word, 
or  joins  the  syllables  of  a word  divided  at  the  end  of  a line. 

Quotation-points  ( “ ” ) enclose  words  quoted,  or  repre- 
sented as  employed  in  dialogue. 


«,  K • 


4 ~ 

* 

'm fc.,  •*  ® 


f 


r,  * 


rs 


$ 

W 


